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1765: Company acquired the diwani of Bengal 1765-1833: Company had dual role of trader and ruler
1833: its commercial role was abolished
Hastings
Civil service became structured Company became a govt and took up functions of revenue and maintenance of law and order. Establishment of the secretariat system The post of collector was introduced He laid the foundation on which Cornwallis built a super-structure Civil and Criminal courts established Supreme court
Cornwallis
Area administration
Consolidated Indian districts into definite administrative units Each district placed under a magistrate and a collector
Judicial Administration
Comprehensive system of justice
Introduced highly liberal system of remuneration Efforts to remove patronage and see that all important offices are held by covenanted CS Cornwallis Code: concerned with correctives against the abuse of power by the officials Separated customs from the revenue department Permanent Settlement Boards were set up for administration: board of trade, board of revenue, military board and medical board
Cornwallis
Positives
Introduced into the organisation of civil service a definitive, legal and rational principle, expressed in the separation of revenue and judicial functions Cornwallis Code
Defined the powers of civil servants in each capacity, with fixed salaries assigned according to the degree of responsibility
Drawback
Europeanisation of Civil Service: his systematic effort to exclude Indians from taking part in the administration Could not give India a modern code of law
Conclusion
Cornwallis created certain basic conditions for the growth of bureaucratization Apart from consolidating the foundations of state authority, he brought corporate, legal and professional concepts into bear upon the organisation of his administrative staff
Wellesley
Contribution in the field of training: Fort William College in Calcutta in 1800. (abolished in 1802). Hartford Castle (1806): the qualification of candidates was tested by a written and an oral examination
Bentinck: evolved the modern concept of district magistrate Charter Act of 1833
Centralisation was the guiding principle Gov Gens council enlarged Presidency of Bengal divided into two parts: Bengal and Agra (nullified in 1835) Gov Gen of Bengal became Gov Gen of India The activities of the Company as a commercial body came to an end Mentioned that Indians should not be debarred from holding office under the company
Dalhousie
Post and telegraph Public Works department Division of governmental functions into well-defined departments was yet another of his reforms
Act of 1861
Initiated the process of decentralisation Member in-charge of his dept could issue final orders with regard to matters which concerned his department Restored some of the powers of the legislative councils of Madras and Bombay Provided for setting up of new councils in other provinces as well Provision for inclusion of some Indians in the council of the gov gen
Decentralisation Commission (1909) made recommendations for the revival and growth of panchayats
Act of 1935
Abolished dyarchy in the provinces but introduced it in the centre Provincial autonomy Three lists: Union, state and concurrent Relaxed some autocratic control of the Crown in certain spheres and replaced it with a popular government Created an All-India Federation
Drawbacks
It was not mandatory for the princely states to join the federation Federal features of the constitution were thus not implemented
Features of the British rule can be discussed under the following heads
Creation of the ICS Secretariat system Pay, promotions and transfers Provincial civil service Financial administration Financial accountability Law and order Administration of justice Local self government Bureaucratic leadership
BUREAUCRACY
Bureaucratic Development
Three phases under Company rule
Phase 1: Upto 1765 when it emerged as a territorial power Phase 2: 1765-1798 period of parliamentary intervention without definite political policy Phase 3 1798 onwards developments by Wellesley
Phase 1
Royal charter of 1661 authorised the company to appoint governor to the provinces Writers were appointed Organisation of CS contained modern ingredients such as a centralised agency of recruitment, graded heirarchy, contractual service and a body of rules governing the transaction of its corporate business Patronage was rampant
Phase 2
To check nepotism and abuse of nomination, the Charter Act of 1793 laid down that all vacancies occuring in Civil offices below the Council should be filled by the members of the Convenant CS belonging to that province Made CS a compact body of officers who were paid according to the number of years of service
Phase 3
Wellesley Fort William College for training of CS established Charter of 1813 During this phase there were two competing principles of administration
First recognised the rule of law as the ruling force Second advocated a form of rule by discretion of executive inter-position
1858-1919
Efforts at rationalisation of the bureaucracy Was a period of bureaucratic despotism where every level of hierarchy tried to tighten the chains around the subordinates Act of 1858 provided for recruitment to CCS through open competitive exam held at London Indian Civil Service Act, 1861: reserved certain high posts in administration for the members of ICS 1876: age limit for recruitment reduced to 19 1892: min age raised to 21 and max to 23
1919-1947
Towards decentralisation 1907: decentralisation commission
Collector to be recognised as the head of the district in all administrative matters Rural and municipal councils
Even before 1765, the company had set up an elaborate system of administration
Apparantice and Writers constituted the lowest level
Two types
Covenanted Un-covenanted
ICS consisted of only that body of civil servants recruited according to provisions of the GoI Act, 1858 and for whom certain posts were reserved Later other methods besides open competition were also used Between 1858 and 1919 recruitment to the ICS was made chiefly by open competition held in London
Act of 1853
Removed the provision of nomination to the covenanted CS All recruitment hence was to be through an open competition
First competitive exam held in 1855 First Indian civil servant: Satyendra Nath Tagore (1864)
Idea of specific age limit for taking the exam evolved with Macaulays report By 1920, there were a total of five methods of entry into the higher civil service Competitive exam conducted by and independent agency Another substantial contribution was institutionalizing a training system
Indianisation of ICS
1870: Parliament passed an Act making provision for appointment of Indians to certain posts reserved for ICS This arrangement proved to be unsatisfactory and was abolished on the recommendation of the Aitchison Committee (1889) 1877-79: Indian Association organised agitation on the civil services question This resulted in the creation of Statutory CS Congress also took up the issue Curzons govt reiterated the policy of English occupying the highest posts By 1913 only 5 pc of the ICS were Indians
Secretariat
Portfolio System (1858) Staffing
Central pool for drawing manpower Recruitment to the upper division of the secretariat made through direct appointments 1937: Maxwell committee recommended that the ministerial staff should be divided into two main grades assistants and clerks
Secretariat Reforms
Secretariat Procedure Committee, 1919
Recommended a pyramidal organisation
Area Administration
After the revolt, a four tier structure was adopted
District Administration Provincial Government Government of India Home Government
The administrative links between these four tiers were provided by statures, rules and conventions
Revenue Administration
Permanent Settlement of Cornwallis
Financial Administration
Initially the Accountant General of Fort William of Bengal controlled the finances From 1846, the Secy to the Govt of India in the Finance Dept was nominated the ex-officio Accountant General of India Creation of the general department of accounts in place of separate accounts for each presidency During Company rule, revenue came from
Land and taxes on trade and personal property
Expenditure
Security or defence Social and development services
1860: The most important administrative innovation was the introduction of the budget sytem
Financial resources to be ascertained before the start of the year
1860
Central Revenue Department created Imperial Audit Department was set up
Financial Accountability
1772: Supervisors as collectors in district 1781: Board of Revenue became the controlling authority for revenue purposes 1829: Divisional commissioners appointed to supervise the collectors 1919: C&AG was made responsible to the central admin 1922: Central Public Accounts Committee created 1926: given power to inspect any government office of account 1934: RBI established
A province to be divided into ranges IPC, 1960, CrPC, 1861, Indian Evidence Act etc constituted the legal framework of criminal justice administration that helped the police system to exercise its functions effectively
Judicial Administration
Hastings organised two courts in each district
Exercising civil and criminal jurisdiction
Holt Mackenzie
Removed the intermediate tier as it slowed down the process Recommended that primary jurisdiction in all cases, except a few, be vested in Indians
Judicial Administration
Judicial admin created perpetual problems
People did not know the laws of the rulers Rulers did not know the traditions of the people
1919
LSG became a provincial and transferred subject under a responsible Indian minister
Conclusion
Indian Administration built on its British heritage
Eg. All India services, recruitment, training, secretariat system, district admin, revenue admin, police system, fin admin
Their Acts and statutes are still in use Innovation and stuff