BLOA SUMMARY

Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis

Animal research can provide insight into human behaviour Biological correlates of behaviour exist

The active brain can be studied scientifically and non-invasively

Cognitions, emotions & behaviours are products of the anatomy & physiology of our nervous system Patterns of Behaviour can be inherited through genetics

Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in research.
Animal research can provide insight into human behaviourMartinez & Kesner, Rosenweig & Bennett Biological correlates of behaviour exist- Intelligence (Bouchard) Memory (CW, HM), Aggression (Young et at)

The active brain can be studied scientifically and non-invasivelyClive Wearing, Maguire, Raine
Cognitions, emotions & behaviours are products of the anatomy & physiology of our nervous system- Janowsky, Clive Wearing, Martinez & Kesner, Wher et al) Patterns of Behaviour can be inherited through genetics- Heston, Bouchard, Curtis & Fessler

Discuss how & why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis

Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis
Ethical considerations must be taken into account; the APS (Australian Psychological Society) Ethical Guidelines guides researchers to consider the implications of their research and deals with a number of methodological issues such as: - Informed consent (CW & HM, Schachter & Singer)
- Deception (Schachter & Singer, Money Study) - Brief / debriefing

- Right to withdraw from the study (CW, HM)

- Voluntary participation (Schachter & Singer, Money Study) - Confidentiality (HM, Clive Wearing Permission to disclose name)

- Protection of participants from both physical and psychological harm. (Schachter & Singer, Janowsky, Money Study, Bouchard, Heston)

Explain one study related to localisation of function in the brain

Using one or more examples, explain effects of neurotransmission on human behaviour

Neurotransmission refers to the method by which electrical impulses are transferred across the synapse once intensity is reached. A neurotransmitter is a chemical that is released from a neuron to relay information to another cell. NTs are stored in membranous sacs called vesicles in the axon terminal. Each vesicle has 1000s of chemicals of a neurotransmitter. STUDIES Serotonin and behaviour/hallucinations (Kasamatsu and Hirai, 1999) Crane 40 Noradrenalin Janowsky (1972) Crane 151-152 Acetylcholine & memory Martinez & Kesner (1991) Crane text p.41

Using one or more examples, explain functions of two hormones in human behaviour
A hormone is a chemical released by a cell or a gland in one part of the body that sends out messages that affect cells in other parts of the organism. Only a small amount of hormone is required to alter cell metabolism. In essence, it is a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one cell to another. Hormones travel through the bloodstream to target cells to alter behaviour, & are therefore slower-acting than NTs Hormones are produced and secreted by glands in the Endocrine system

Melatonin, Sleep and SAD- Wehr et al (2008) AND Avery (Pearson Pg 56) SAD & Melatonin Cortisol, poverty & depression Fernald & Gunnar (2008) Crane text p.153 Schachter & Singer (1962)- Adrenalin(epinephrine) Injections

Hormone

Glands

Function

Adrenalin
Cortisol

Adrenals
Adrenals

Flight or fight response; arousal

Arousal; stress; memory, regulating BP and cardiovascular function, use of proteins, carbs and fats

Melatonin Oxytocin

Pineal

Regulation of sleep

Pituitary & hypothalamus Mother-child attachment Development; emotion

Testosterone & oestrogen Gonads

Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes

Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes cont.

Examine ONE interaction between cognition & physiology in

terms of behaviour. Evaluate two relevant studies

Link to cognition to physiology

Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors & behaviour
FMRI- Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging MRI- Magnetic Resonance Imaging PET Positron Emission Tomography EEG- Electroencepholography STUDIES Mirror neuron activity in humans w fMRI Iacoboni (2004) see Crane p. 48 Spatial memory w MRI Maguire et al. (2000) & PET (1997) Haralambos Pg 352

Aggression/murder (localisation of function) w PET scans Raine et al. (1997)

Clive Wearing MRI, PET

PET / fMRI in investigating Alzheimers Disease Mosconi Study (2005) p86 Crane

GENETICS and BEHAVIOUR

W.r.t relevant research studies, to what extent does genetic inheritance influence behaviour?
Intelligence Both genetics and environment play crucial role o Poverty tends to correlate with low IQ Meta-analysis of 111 IQ studies found the closer the kinship the higher the correlation for IQ (Bouchard & McGue, 1981) Minnesota Twin Study (Bouchard et al., 1990) pg 55 Crane o MZ twins raised together compared to MZ twins raised apart longitudinal study o Estimate that heritability accounts for about 70% of intelligence Criticism Media coverage to recruit participants - possible sample bias Ethical concerns about how he reunited the twins who were reared apart No control over how often the twins reared apart visited each other prior to study Equal environment assumption - cannot assume twins raised together experience same environments (e.g. treatment from parents, experience with friends and peers in school and at home)

Schizophrenia Heston (1966)

- Heston studied children in foster homes & correlated the incidence of Schizophrenia with those whose mothers were diagnosed with schizophrenia. - General population incidence of schizophrenia = 1% - Adoptees with no family history = 1% - Adoptees with mother diagnosed w schizophrenia = 10% - Strong evidence for genetic component.

Adoption studies
Scarr & Weinberg, 1977; Horn et al., 1979) o No significant difference found in IQ correlations between adoptive and natural children in families despite adoptive parents being wealthy, white and with high IQ and adopted children being from poor backgrounds
Wahlstein (1997) French study oTransferring an infant from a low socio-economic-status to a high s-e-s home improved IQ scores by 12-16 points thus showing the importance of an enriched environment. Suggests a strong interaction between genes & environment

Examine one evolutionary explanation of behaviour

DISGUST: Promotes survival (Fessler, 2006) Introduce idea of mechanisms of behaviour *natural selection cannot select for a behaviour; it can only select for mechanisms that produce behaviour] Confirmed by on-line survey (Curtis et al. 2004), where Ps had greatest reaction to stimuli which threatened the immune system Related to biological preparedness and phobias as animals eliciting this reaction can be poisonous, avoidance promotes survival.

Key Studies:
FESSLER et al. (2006)
LINK to evolutionary theory of disgust: EXAMPLE: during the first trimester women have the strongest disgust mechanism, this fits with evolutionary theory since when their immune system is weakest (to protect foetus from rejection) they require the strongest level of protection from any contaminated food. Thus those women with the genes for the strongest mechanism for disgust during the first trimester have survived and their genes have passed from generation to generation.

Key Studies
CURTIS et.al. (2004)

contd.

LINK to evolutionary theory of disgust EXAMPLE: women stronger reaction than men is of evolutionary significance as women have a greater involvement In reproduction and need to protect the foetus age older persons less involved in reproduction BUT older people have greater experience and have learned coping mechanisms and strategies to respond in different ways to problematic items...using culture, prior knowledge, analysis of setting etc.

Alternative Views
eg Rozin argues that disgust is culturally acquired ie learnt behaviour **see notes EKMAN once disagreed with evolutionary theories BUT now is convinced that six emotions are universal including disgust

see G:Drive doc from BJ txt.

GENERAL EVALUATION of Evolutionary theories:

Research is speculative as little is known about human ancestors Reductionist complex ideas simplified Experimentation problematic thus cause and effect not shown Determinist tendency to ignore conflicting research, Hayes (2005) confirmation bias
CONCLUSIONthere is considerable evidence to support the view that the mechanism for disgust has been advantageous to human survival and has evolved over millions of years , however, the impact of the environment/culture on our disgust mechanism should not be underestimated. eg vegemite

Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behaviour

Genetic research --> potentially more risky, problematic Open to abuse/misuse, findings about genetic inheritance and behaviour and future lifestyle - do we or should we know our genetic future? (responsibilities of the researcher?) Genetic research into foetal abnormalities fraught with difficult issues - ethical, religious, spiritual, personal Ethics in relevant genetic studies - Heston and Bouchard Privacy/confidentiality - who consents, who knows, is told all, parent, child, school, employer, insurance agency, military Mistaken paternity, anonymisation of data (double blind) Consent - community - aboriginal culture - informed, implication and potential harm if not gained. Results uncertain, may cause disorder, consequences?

PROTECTION from HARM:

Genetic research attempts to uncover whether an individual has a particular genetic make-up, whether you have the genes for x eg schizophreniaor more accurately the pre-disposition Heston found that 10% of adopted children whose biological mothers had been diagnosed with S developed S cf. only 1% of adopted children with bio mothers not diagnosed with S. Counselling: child if told should be informed that this is not a certainty, they may have a pre-disposition but it is NOT determined, they will not necessarily develop the disorder BUT this raises a key issue with genetic research we dont know what we might findeg misattributed paternity, may find that this is not your child?? May carry recessive genes for unfortunate characteristicsie one of the genes for depression Caspis 5HTT short allele, may have only one not two of these what are the risks?? Of developing depression? Should this information be made public : who?? individual, parent, school, employer, insurance company . False positives???

Consent
Consent = Informed!! But hard to be informed in such a grey area. Who consents = child needs parental consent, what about wider familywhat you find out may affect siblings etc and then the wider community eg Aboriginal community decision as wider implications for the community. In the Money study David Rheimers parents consented and even asked for Moneys help BUT Money may have misled them about how easy it would be to reassign their childs gender identity and they were not aware of the practise sexual behaviour

Confidentiality
Confidentiality/privacy = Should this information be made public : who?? Individual, parent, school, employer, insurance company . Heston did not reveal the names of the adopted children but may have obtained access to their medical and psychological records without their consent. Money did not reveal the name of David Rheimer.

 Right to withdraw = not easy for children to do this when adults are in control of researchMoney example. Unintended consequences of research = Charles Murrays use of IQ and race in America to mislead and feed into racist debates. Also the media misuse of Hamers research into the Xq28 gene.misreported as finding a gay gene. Stigmatizing if someone is labelled with a pre-disposition they may not be employed or get life insurance or it may lead to a selffulfilling prophecy..interpret all unusual behaviour as psychotic and result in further disturbed behaviour etc. Self-awareness similar effects on an individual.do you want to know you carry the genes for Alzheimerseffect on parents if passed certain genes on to children