Cognitive LOA SUMMARY

Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis (for example, mental representations guide behaviour, mental processes can be scientifically investigated).
Mental representations guide behaviour:
Earlier behaviourists believed it was possible to understand behaviour by observing the stimuli and responses of the organism and ignoring the black box (brain) which they believed could not be studied effectively. Cognitive psychologists argued it was important to study the mediator of the input and output this is in large part our memory which intervenes to organise & interpret reality. Schema theory illustrates how cognitive structures influence our behaviour and enable efficient processing of our environment. According to schema theory, schemas perform several interrelated functions:
they organize information in memory they can be activated, often automatically, to increase information-processing efficiency in the form of stereotypes (social schemas), they influence social perception and behaviour, often when automatically activated they can lead to distortions and mistakes when the wrong schemas become activated.

Schemas have been shown to affect behaviour in many ways eg affects what we remember (Bartlett/Allport & Postman) and they influence how we respond to people.

 Mental processes can be investigated scientifically:

Viewing mental processes in terms of information-processing has made it possible to formulate testable theories about unobservable cognitive structures and processes. Such models or theories can be tested by conventional scientific methods (e.g. laboratory experiments, brain-imaging studies) without having to rely on introspection for data collection. The study of mental processes has enabled psychologists to address important psychological phenomena which behaviourism/early psychologists found difficult, or even impossible, to address. The flourishing state of modern cognitive psychology, cognitive neuroscience and other related fields, bear witness to the success of addressing psychological phenomena at the cognitive LOA. The study of phenomena at the cognitive level of analysis can often be integrated with the study of these same phenomena at the biological and sociocultural levels thus leading to more comprehensive explanations.

Explain how principles that define the cognitive level of analysis may be demonstrated in research (that is, theories and/or studies) Mental representations guide behaviour: Schemas have been shown to affect behaviour in many ways eg affects what we remember (Bartlett/Allport & Postman) and they influence how we respond to people.

Mental processes can be investigated scientifically: Examples: Mental processes can be scientifically investigated: memory models (Sperling, Miller, Atkinson & S, Baddeley & Hitch, Craik & Tulvingor schema (Bartlett, Allport & Postman.), FBM (Brown & Kulik, Conrad, McCloskey.)

Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis (for example, experiments, observations, interviews).
Experiments: Laboratory eg Miller; Petersen and Petersen; Craik and Lockhart/Craik and Tulving Loftus and Palmer used to show lack of reliability of memory Why: shows cause and effect (leading Qs influence estimates of speed) control of variables objective measurement Quasi-Expt: eg, Schema: Bartlett; Allport and Postman; Brewer and Treyens eg Cole and Scribner: Liberian tribal children does not show cause and effect but did reveal differences in memory processing based on schooling and need for culturally specific test of memory eg, Rogoff and Waddell use of diorama with Mayans.. Field Expt : eg Buckhout California State Uni 141 witnesses of mock attack of Professor inaccurate descriptions only 40% correct, 25% identified bystander as attacker, using biased photos led to answers of attacker. Case Studies: H.M and Clive Wearing, K.F Why: allows in-depth data to be collected eg qualitative (observational) and quantitative (MRI records) Shows changes over time longitudinal But problems include: no control over IV so no cause and effect, difficult to replicate, hard to generalise as one case is very different to next esp. with brain damage cases

Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis.
Informed Consent needed and most studies show this BUT Schachter and Singer shows consent was not informed nor was Deception avoided! And poss risk of harm Deception avoid Debriefing all studies show this Protection from harm most show this esp. memory expts Right to withdraw relate to studies such as L and P (hard when R is your lecturer) What else can you think of. Can argue that it is easier to be ethical when studying the cognitive level than biological as invasive surgery/drug use not required for much research.and use of new technology has opened up further methods to study cognitive processes in action and enabled a better understanding of the interrelationship between biology and cognitive processes

Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies. (CP 1)

Strengths of theory: Considerable evidence to support Plausible explanation for categorisation, misinterpretation, distortion and reconstruction Contributed significantly to an understanding of cognitive distortions in memory. Has shown an impact on all three memory processes: encoding, storage and retrieval. See Anderson and Pichert pg 72 Crane Social schemas contribute to/applied to explain stereotyping and prejudice. (see Socio-cultural section later ) Cognitive miser concept helps explain how we manage masses of social info at one time. Weaknesses: some studies dated and not well-controlled eg Bartlett, but has been replicated. Not clear how Schemas originate. Not clear how we choose between them. Not clear how they influence us. Vague and difficult concept to explore as an inferred cognitive structure we cant see it or measure it directly and objectively. Schema theories generally predict that readers will draw more inferences when reading a text than is actually the caseBartlett exaggerated the number of memory distortions produced. ( see uni student study by Wynn and Logie p 320 Eysenck Int.) Schema-induced memory distortions may be less common in naturalistic conditions than in the laboratory. (eg Wynn and Logie, 1998)

Key studies schema theory

Bartlett Native American Indian folktale: serial recall canoe boat seal hunting Allport and Postman Race and stereotypes Brewer and Treyens Office schema Bransford title or no title extract eg washing clothes Gender schema theory pg 559 H

Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process (for example, memory) with reference to research studies. (CP 2)

Multi-store Model: Atkinson and Shiffrin MS model Atkinson & Shiffrin(1968) H p.13, C p.72-3 Linear, passive, separate stores, verbal rehearsal to form LTM Iconic store Sperling (1960) H. p.13 but KF, challenge to single STM store Shallice & Warrington (1974) - H p.14 Challenge to rehearsal Tulving (1967) H p.14 Working Memory Model: Baddeley and Hitch WM Model Baddeley & Hitch (1974) Crane p.73 Structure of WMM Baddeley (1986) H p.16 Visuo-spatial sketchpad - Kosslyn & Schwartz (1981) H p.17

Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process (for example, Alzheimers disease, brain damage, sleep deprivation).
Brain damage can affect memory in different ways eg damage to the hippocampus results in amnesia: REVIEW Clive Wearing see Crane pp.78-9 REVIEW H.M. Milner (1966) see Crane p.79 But damage to the parietal-occipital area can cause problems with verbal rehearsal see KF by Shallice and Warrington Alzheimers Disease is the most common form of dementia Plaques and tangles form in cell body and dendrites of neurons First ..memory is affected (new facts more than older semantic or episodic memories) Later in the very final stages of the disease procedural memory is affected, along with loss of verbal abilities , muscle mass and mobility deteriorate Mosconi (2005) investigates early signs of reduced metabolism in the hippocampus (Crane p86) Can also use: Martinez & Kesner (linking ACh (BIO) and memory (COG))

Comparison of Normal Aged Brain and Alzheimers Diseased Brain

Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process (for example, education affects memory recall). (CP 4)
Education/Culture Cole and Scribner rural Liberian children do not learn word lists easily but can learn the words if put in a .. Rogoff and Waddell Mayan children do not learn via list learning but using a diorama they do as well as US children Culture Kearins J (1981) Aboriginal adolescents have better spatial recall than white Australians Bartlett- culture affects recall Allport and Postman racial stereotypes/schema affect recall Wang et al individualistic culture FBM But collectivist cultures are less likely because Gender: gender schema theory

With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent is one cognitive process reliable (for example, reconstructive memory)?
Memory is reconstructive eg Bartlett War of the Ghosts Loftus and Palmer see http://www.holah.karoo.net/loftusstudy.htm L and P argue that two kinds of information go into a person's memory of a complex event. The first is the information obtained from perceiving the event, and the second is information supplied to us after the event eg leading Qs. Over time, information from these two sources may be integrated so we are unable to tell from which source some specific detail is recalled. All we have is one 'memory'. This argument is called the reconstructive hypothesis. BUT memory is also affected by emotions, alcohol, who you are with, personal meaning etc Strengths of the method Experiments allow for precise control of variables. The purpose of control is to enable the experimenter to isolate the one key variable which has been selected (the IV), in order to observe its effect on some other variable (the DV). Control is intended to allow us to conclude that it is the IV, and nothing else, which is influencing the DV. For example Loftus was able to control the age of the participants, the use of video and the location of the experiment. All participants were asked the same questions (apart from changes in the critical words), and the position of the key question in the second was randomised. Limitations of the method The experiment is not typical of real life situations. Demand characteristics are likely. The experiments are artificial in the sense that they are different from how people would normally witness events and it is often victims who give testimony. For example, when the participants were giving their estimates of speed, they did not have any personal involvement in the judgement and had not taken part in the event. When we witness events in everyday life, we often have some involvement in the people or the action and there may also be significant and serious legal consequences if we are inaccurate. Also most memory distortions are for minor details eg broken glass rather than features of the criminal.?? Therefore it is difficult to generalise findings from laboratory experiments because they are not ecologically valid (true to real life), however the use of a video is an improvement on photographs.

Further research
Loftus et. al 1987 (Weapons Focus Effect) Deffenbacher (2004) anxiety improves memory recall except too great anxiety impairs recall Buckhout (1975) simulated attack on professor, recall inaccurate Ihleback et al (2003) staged a robbery with two robbers armed with hand guns live video condition showed video viewers had a better memory and videoed this Real life: better recall Yuille and Cutshall real life robbery & murder. Survivors of the Titanic also remembered events accurately. Riniolo (2003) archival study.

Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes (for example, MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scans in memory research, fMRI scans
in emotion and cognition studies).
EEG - Electroencephalogram. Electro-chemical signals are the basis of communication between nerve cells and these can be recorded at the scalp. CW PET- imaging has also been used to assess patients with other neurological diseases including Alzheimers and Parkinsons diseases, because the images can demonstrate areas of the brain that are functioning differently to normal. eg Alzheimers Mosconi study reduced metabolism in the hippocampus can indicate early on-set Alzheimers Disease MRI &fMRI - Clive Wearing and H.M. Advantages: Quantitative hard evidence of cognitive functions relating them to physiological activity. it would not be possible for the participants to respond to demand characteristics. although the use of computers does make very sophisticated analysis possible. MRI scanning technology does not pose any health risks to the participants and all of the participants give informed consent. None of the participants should have been negatively affected by their experience. Disadvantages: Expensive technique in terms of equipment and researchers time, risk of inferences about normal functions based on abnormal brain functioning, plus the task of being scanned in an MRI scanner is hardly ecologically valid.

Cognition and Emotion

To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion (for example, two factor theory, arousal theory, Lazarus theory of appraisal)? Biological pathways for emotional response Le Doux: Short route = emotional stimuli sensory thalamus amygdala emotional response Long route = emotional stimuli sensory thalamus hippocampus and neo cortex amygdala emotional response
What is the significance of the hippocampus & neo cortex in the long route? (Sam dont tell them) Lazarus: cognitive appraisal theory : stress experiences are not only physiological but need to be experienced psychologically. We actively interpret and evaluate whats happening to us. We appraise the threat as well as appraising our own resources / ability for dealing with the situation. Initially Lazarus distinguished two types of appraisal = primary and secondary but in later work he developed six! Primary = is this personally relevant?
Motivational relevance Motivational congruence Accountability

Secondary = provides info on how the individual can cope

Problem-focussed coping Emotion focussed coping Future expectancy

Lazarus talked of CRT Core Relational Theme = summary of all the appraisal judgements

Schachter and Singer: two factor theory (BOTH physiological arousal plus cognition are needed before emotion is felt)
See: http://www.holah.karoo.net/schachterstudy.htm This unethical expt clearly shows the necessity of both physiological arousal (via adrenaline) and cognitive factors (appraisal of the situation: euphoria or anger). Limitation: Marshall and Zimbardo - has not been possible to replicate Lacks ecological validity, artificial injection and situation (euphoria and anger) Now considered too simplistic, cognitive appraisal is more complex than first thought Speisman (1964) film of initiation ceremony of genital surgery, aiming to see if peoples reaction to situations can be manipulated by playing different soundtracks while the film was playing.

Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process (for example, state-dependent memory, flashbulb memory, affective filters).
Flash Bulb Memory

Definition = detailed, vivid and photographic-like remembrance of a moment in time and the context in which you experienced this episode.
FBM Theory proposed by Brown and Kulik: see Pearson form in situations where we encounter surprising and highly emotional information are maintained by means of overt rehearsal (involving discussion with others) and covert rehearsal (private rehearsing or ruminating) differ from other memories in that they more vivid, last longer, and are more consistent and accurate require for their creation the involvement of a specialized neural mechanism which stores information permanently in a unique memory system.

FBM cont
Conway resignation of Margaret Thatcher for those British people who were close to this event and formed FBM = good recall but not so for non-British ppts. McCloskey Neisser and Harsch Talarico and Rubin The studies discussed above, and additional research, demonstrate that FBMs: are long lasting but not permanent and may not be any longer lasting than important everyday memories are more vivid than most ordinary memories are recalled with a higher degree of confidence than other memories. Thus two key determinants are: High importance/consequences But not surprise.

and Emotionality

Some of the properties describe by Brown and Kulik eg permanence and consistency are disputed BUT vividness and confidence are supported by the research. Weakest claim there is a separate neural mechanism = not so! If you wish to pursue the four models in more depth see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashbulb_memory for quite a good summary.