Documente Academic
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Other References:
Park, R., (1997): Foundations of structural Geology. Chapman and Hall, London. Hobbs, B., Means, W. and Williams, P., (1989): An outline of structural geology, 3rd ed., John Wiley, New York. Ramsay, J. and Huber, M., (1987): The techniques of modern structural geology. Academic Press, London.
EXAMS:
First exam: 15 % Second exam: 15 % Final exam: 40 % Lab. + quizzes + attendance: 30 %
OBJECTIVES: The aims of this course are: Introduces the basic mechanical principles in structural geology, like stress, strain, elastic and plastic deformation in materials and rocks.
Enables the student to recognize and describe the different geological structures (joints, faults, folds, foliationetc.).
Review the skills of using the geological compass and the stereographic methods in structural geology.
Study geological structures in the lab and in the field through field trips to the surrounding areas.
Week
1 2 3 4 5
Subject
Introduction and basic terms in structural geology Primary and nontectonic structures Force and stress: Normal and shear stress Mohr diagram for stress Strain measurement
Chapter
1 2 3 3 4
First exam
6 7 8 9 10 11
5 6 6 7 8 8
Joints
Faults and faulting, Fault systems Recognizing and interpreting faults Second exam
12 13 14-16
9 10 10
During the late 18th century and th through the 19 century the geological discovery have been quickened.
In 1785, James Hutton introduces the doctorine of uniformitarianisim (the present is the key to the past). + A group of scientists started to recognize themselves as geologists. Their main aims were: * To make geological maps. * Reported the formation of rocks. * The origins of specific structures and mountain ranges. + Later, ideas about the origin of mountains have evolved gradually.
Firstly, they believed that movement of magma upward generated mountains and the associated folds were generated by downslope movement along the flanks of these mountains. (G. P. Scrope (1825)).
Subsequently, horizontal forces were emphasized, and the scientists were believed that mountain ranges evolved due to contraction of the earth that resulted from the progressive cooling. Later, James Hall recognized that the Paleozoic strata in the Appalachian in North America were much thicker than correlative strata in the interior of the continent. This led to the development of geosyncline theory where deep subsidening sedimentary basin evolved into mountain range.
structural geology solidified, but by the 1960s it became a real science by the formulation of PLATE TECTONICS THEORY and considered as a revolution in earth sciences.
Structural geology: is the study of the threedimensional (3 D) distribution of rock units with respect to their deformational histories.
The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of rock to get information about the history of deformation (strain) in the rocks, and ultimately to understand the Forces (stress field) that resulted in the observed deformation.
This understanding of the stress field can be linked to important events in the regional geologic past; a common goal is to understand the structural evolution of a particular area with respect to regionally widespread patterns of rock deformation (e.g., mountain building, rifting) due to plate tectonics.
WHAT IS THE JOB OF STRUCTURAL GEOLOGISTS : (1) measure rock geometries. (2) reconstruct their deformational histories.
Examples of geologic structures are: folds, faults , joints, veins, cleavage, foliation and lineations.
Consequently, there are many schemes for classification of these structures.
VI. Classification based on Strain significance, in which a reference frame must defined (usually earth surface or the deformed layer):
Contractional: shortening of a region (convergence). Extensional: stretching of a region (divergence). Strike-slip: movement without either shorting or stretching (lateral slip).
Finally, most crustal structures are a consequence of plate tectonics activities that include; convergence, divergence and transform (lateral slip) movements.
=F/A
Deformation in general has three components: Translation: movement of rock from place to another ( i.e fault) Rotation: pivoting of a body around a fixed axis (i.e fold)
1. Homogeneous strain: the deformation is the same throughout the rock. 2. Heterogeneous strain: the deformation is different throughout the rock.
1. Descriptive analysis: The characterization of the shape and appearance of geologic structures.
Attitude, strike, dip angle, dip direction ,plunge, trend, rake (pitch), apparent dip, trace, cross section, profile plane, position,
2. Kinematic analysis: Involve the determination of the movement paths that rocks or parts of rocks have taken during transformation from the undeformed to deformed state. (use of features in rocks to define the direction of movement on a fault).
3. Dynamic analysis: Involve development of an understanding of how stress related to deformation (stress and its direction). 4. Strain analysis: The development of mathematical tools to quantifying the strain in a rock.
5. Deformation Mechanism analysis: The study of processes on the grain scale to atomic scale that allow structures to develop , ex: sliding, fracturing, plasticity.
6. Tectonic analysis: The study of the relation between structure and global tectonic process: divergent, convergent, transport.
4. Dynamic analysis (How stress is related to deformation, used microstructure). 5. Deformation mechanism analysis (structural development in grain to atomic scale, fracture and flow of the rock).
6. Tectonic analysis (relation between structure and global tectonic).
Good observation, recognition and description of rocks and their structure are very important for field analysis.
Deformed area can be subdivided into a number of region contain consistent structural attitude (structural domain). Principle of least astonishment (simplest interpretation is most correct). Additional subsurface data (drilling, seismic and other geophysical techniques) are important for structural geologist interpretation. It is important to imagine all geological structure in a MODEL 3D and even more than that.