Network Standards

Layered Architectures
Chapter 2

Updated January 2007

Pankos Business Data Networks and Telecommunications, 6th edition Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall May only be used by adopters of the book

1. Message Standards (Protocols)

Figure 2-1: Standards Govern the Exchange of Messages

Standards Rules of operation that allow two hardware or software processes to work together Even if they are from different vendors Standards Govern the Exchange of Messages Messages must be governed by strict rules Because computers are not intelligent
Message

2-3

Figure 2-1: Standards Govern the Exchange of Messages (Continued) Standards Govern Syntax
Syntax: the organization of the message
Human example: Susan thanked Tom This sentence has a subject-verb-object syntax

Standards Govern Semantics

Semantics: The meaning of the message Human example: Susan thanked Tom Humans understand the meaning of this easily
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Figure 2-2: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) Interactions

1. HTTP Request Message Asking for a File Browser Webserver Application Webserver 2. HTTP Response Message delivering the File or giving an error message

Client PC

Semantics in HTTP, which governs the Web

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Figure 2-3: Syntax of HTTP Request and Response Messages

[CRLF]
Carriage return and line feed (starts a new line)

HTTP Request Message

GET /reports/project1/final.htm HTTP/1.1[CRLF] GET is the method (others exist) Next comes the path to the file to be retrieved Last comes the version of the HTTP standard

Host: voyager.cba.Hawaii.edu[CRLF]
The host to be sent the request message
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Figure 2-3: Syntax of HTTP Request and Response Messages, Continued HTTP Response Message

Syntax is very rigid

HTTP/1.1 200 OK[CRLF] Date: Tuesday, 20-JAN-2006 18:32:15 GMT[CRLF] Server: name of server software[CRLF] MIME-version: 1.0[CRLF] Content-type: text/plain[CRLF] [CRLF] File to be downloaded (byte stream)

Syntax of fields (lines) after first line:

Keyword : Content [CRLF]
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Figure 2-1: Standards Govern the Exchange of Messages, Continued

General Message Syntax (Organization)
General Message Organization (Figure 2-4)
Primary parts of messages Data Field (content to be delivered)

Header (everything before the data field)

Trailer (everything after the data field) The header and trailer act like a delivery envelope for the data field.
Trailer Data Field Header 2-8

Figure 2-1: Standards Govern the Exchange of Messages, Continued

General Message Syntax (Organization)
Header and trailer are further divided into fields
Trailer Data Field Header

Message with all three parts

Destination Address Field is Used by Switches and Routers Like the Address on an Envelope 2-9

Other Header Field

Figure 2-4: General Message Organization, Continued

Data Field

Header

Message without a trailer

Usually only data link layer messages have trailers

Other Header Field

Destination Address Field

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Figure 2-4: General Message Organization, Continued

Header

Message with only a header

Other Header Field

Destination Address Field

e.g. TCP supervisory messages are pure headers (there is no data field content to deliver)

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2. Reliability

Figure 2-5: Reliable Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Session

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is an important standard in Internet transmission TCP
Receiver acknowledges each correctly-received TCP segment. If an acknowledgments is not received by the sender, the sender retransmits the TCP message (called a TCP segment) This gives reliability: error detection and error correction
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Figure 2-5: Reliable TCP Session, Continued

Client PC TCP Process 4. Data = HTTP Request 5. ACK (4)

Webserver TCP Process

Carry HTTP Req & Resp (4)

6. Data = HTTP Response

TCP Segment (Message) 4 Carries an HTTP Request 7. ACK (6) Segment 5 Acknowledges It There Is No Need to Resend 2-14

Request-Response Cycle for Data Transfer

Figure 2-5: A TCP Session, Continued

Client PC TCP Process

Webserver TCP Process

8. Data = HTTP Request (Error)

Carry HTTP Req & Resp (4) 9. Data = HTTP Request (No ACK so Retransmit) 10. ACK (9) TCP Segment (Message) 8 Lost in Transmission 11. Data = HTTPIs Response

Error Handling

There Is No Acknowledgment 12. ACK (11) So the Sender Retransmits It

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3. Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Protocols

Figure 2-6: Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Protocols

Connection-Oriented Protocol A Open Connection B Connectionless Protocol A Message (No Sequence Number) B

Message 1 (Seq. Num = A1)

Message 3 (Seq. Num B1)

Message 2 (Seq. Num = A2) Close Connection

Connection-oriented protocols have Formal openings and closings like Telephone calls Also have sequence numbers so that the receiver can put messages in order And so the receiver can send Acknowledgments for specific messages 2-17

Figure 2-6: Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Protocols, Continued

Client PC Browser HTTP Request

Webserver Application

HTTP is connectionless No Openings No Closings No Sequence Numbers No Acknowledgments 2-18

Figure 2-6: Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Protocols, Continued

Client PC TCP Process

In TCP

Webserver TCP Process

Connection-Opening Messages

Time

Messages During the Connection

Connection-Closing Messages

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Figure 2-7: Advantages and Disadvantages or Connection-Oriented Protocols Advantages

Thanks to sequence numbers, the parties can tell if a message is lost.
Error messages, such as ACKs can refer to specific messages. Long messages can be fragmented into many smaller messages that can fit inside packets.

Fragmentation followed by reassembly on the destination host is an important concept in networking.

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Figure 2-7: Advantages and Disadvantages or Connection-Oriented Protocols, Cont. Disadvantages

The presence of many supervisory messages consumes existing bandwidth
The processing of connection information places a heavy processing load on computers connected to the network

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4. The Hybrid TCP/IP-OSI Standards Architecture

Standards Architecture
A Standards Architecture is a Broad Plan for Creating Standards
Break the problem of effective communication into smaller pieces for ease of development Develop standards for the individual pieces Just as a building architect creating a general plan for a house before designing the individual rooms in detail The dominant architecture today is the hybrid TCP/IPOSI standards architecture shown in the next slide
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Figure 2-8: Hybrid TCP/IP-OSI Architecture

General Purpose (Core Later) Application-application communication Transmission of a packet across an internet

Layer Application (5) Transport (4) Internet (3) Data Link (2) Physical (1)

Specific Layer Purpose Application-application interworking Host-host communication Packet delivery across an internet Frame delivery across a network Device-device connection 2-24

Transmission of a frame across a single network (LAN or WAN)

Figure 2-8: Hybrid TCP/IP-OSI Architecture, Continued

Physical and Data Link Layer Standards
Govern Communication Through a Single Network LAN or WAN

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Figure 2-9: Physical and Data Link Layer Standards in a Single Network
Physical Layer
Physical layer standards govern transmission between adjacent devices connected by a transmission medium

Physical Link A-X1 Host A

Switch X1 Switch X2

Physical Link X1-X2

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Figure 2-9: Physical and Data Link Layer Standards in a Single Network, Continued Data Link Layer
Data link layer standards govern the transmission of frames across a single networktypically by sending them through several switches along the data link
Frame Data Link A-B Switch X1 Switch X2 2-27 Host B

Host A

Figure 2-9: Physical and Data Link Layer Standards in a Single Network, Continued
Data Link Layer
Data link layer standards also govern
Frame organization Switch operation

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Figure 2-9: Physical and Data Link Layer Standards in a Single Network, Continued
3 Physical Links 1 Data Link 2 Switches

Host A Data Link A-R1 Physical Link A-X1 Switch X1 Physical Link X1-X2 Mobile Client Station

Switch

Switch

Server Station

Switch X2

Physical Link X2-R1

Router R1
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Figure 2-10: Internet and Data Link Layers in an Internet Internet and Transport Layers
An internet is a group of networks connected by routers so that any application on any host on any network can communicate with any application on any other host on any other network
Internet and transport layer standards govern communication across an internet composed of two or more single networks

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Figure 2-10: Internet and Data Link Layers in an Internet, Continued

Internet Layer
Internet layer standards govern the transmission of packets across an internettypically by sending them through several routers along the route
Messages at the internet layer are called packets Internet layer standards also govern packet organization and router operation
Packet

Router 1

Router 2

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Figure 2-10: Internet and Data Link Layers in an Internet, Continued

Host A

Data Link A-R1

R1
Network X 3 Data Links: One per Network 1 Route per Internet Network Y Data Link R1-R2 R2 Host B Data Link R3-B 2-32

Network Z

Route A-B

Figure 2-10: Internet and Data Link Layers in an Internet, Continued

Frame X Packet Data Link A-R1 In Network X: Switch Two Destination Addresses: Packet: Host B (Destination Host) Switch Server Frame: Router Station R1

Host A

Switch X1 Mobile Client Station

Network X 2-33 Switch X2 Route A-B

Router R1

Figure 2-10: Internet and Data Link Layers in an Internet, Continued

To Network X
Route A-B Router R1 Frame Y Packet

Data Link In Network Y: R1-R2 Two Destination Addresses: Packet: Host B (Destination Host) Frame: Router R2 To Network Z Router R2

Network Y

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Figure 2-10: Internet and Data Link Layers in an Internet, Continued

Frame Z Packet

Data Link R2-B Host B

Switch Z1

Router R2

In Network Z: Two Destination Addresses: Switch Packet: Host B (Destination Host) Z2 Frame: Host B
Mobile Client Stations Network Z 2-35 Switch X2 Router

Frames and Packets In an internet with hosts separated by N networks, there will be:
2 hosts One packet (going all the way between hosts) One route (between the two hosts) N frames (one in each network) There usually are many switches within single networks There usually are many physical links within networks
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Figure 2-11: Internet and Transport Layer Standards Transport Layer

Transport layer standards govern aspects of end-toend communication between two end hosts that are not handled by the internet layer These standards allow hosts to work together even if the two computers are from different vendors and have different internal designs

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Figure 2-11: Internet and Transport Layer Standards, Continued

2. Transport Layer end-to-end (host-to-host) TCP is connection-oriented, reliable UDP is connectionless and unreliable

Client PC

Server

1. Internet Layer (usually IP) hop-by-hop (host-router or router-router) connectionless, unreliable

Router 1

Router 2

Router 3 2-38

Figure 2-12: Application Layer Standards Application Layer

The application layer governs how two applications work with each other, even if they are from different vendors

Browser

Webserver Application Webserver 2-39

Client PC

Figure 2-12: Application Layer Standards There are more application layer standards than any other type of standard because there are many applications
HTTP

E-Mail
Database Instant Messaging FTP Etc.
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Standards Layers: Recap

Application (5) Be able to repeat this in your sleep!

Transport (4)
Internet (3)

Data Link (2)

Physical (1)

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5. Syntax Examples for Some Layer Messages

Octets
Field length may be measured in octets An octet is a group of eight bits

In computer science, an octet is called a byte

Octet = 8 Bits 10010111

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Figure 2-14: Ethernet Frame

Preamble (7 octets) 10101010 Start of Frame Delimiter (1 octet) 10101011 Destination Ethernet (MAC) Address (48 bits) Source Ethernet (MAC) Address (48 bits) Length (2 octets) Length of Data Field

Header

The Ethernet frame has 48-bit destination and source address fields. 2-44

Figure 2-14: Ethernet Frame, Continued

LLC Subheader (usually 7 octets) Usually IP Packet Encapsulated Packet

Data Field

Data Field (variable length)

PAD (added if data field < 46 octets) Frame Check Sequence (32 bits) The Ethernet frames data field contains a IP packet (preceded by an LLC subheader). PAD is added if the data field is less than 46 octets long PAD length is set to keep the data field plus PAD 46 octets 2-45

Figure 2-14: Ethernet Frame, Continued

Frame Check Sequence (32 bits)

Sender computes the frame check sequence field value based on contents of other fields
Receiver recomputes the field value

If the values match, there have been no errors If the values do not match, there has been an error
The receiver simply discards the frame

Unreliable: error detection but not error correction

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Figure 2-15: Internet Protocol (IP) Packet, Continued

Bit 0

The IP packet is drawn 32 bits to a line

Diff-Serv (8 bits) Flags (3 bits) Total Length (16 bits)

Bit 31

Header Version Length (4 bits) (4 bits)

Identification (16 bits) Time to Live Protocol (8 bits) (8 bits) Version is Bits 0-3

Fragment Offset (13 bits)

Header Checksum (16 bits) Identification is Bits 32-47

Header length is Bits 4-7

Diff Serv is Bits 8-15 Total Length is Bits 16-31 2-47 Time to live is Bits 48-55

Figure 2-15: Internet Protocol (IP) Packet

Bit 0 Version Header Length Diff-Serv Flags Total Length Fragment Offset Header Checksum Bit 31

Identification Time to Live Protocol

Source IP Address (32 bits) Destination IP Address (32 bits) Options (if any) Padding (to 32-bit boundary)

Data Field (dozens, hundreds, or thousands of bits) Often contains a TCP segment 2-48

Figure 2-16: TCP and UDP at the Transport Layer

TCP is reliable Not all applications need reliability
Voice over IP cannot wait for lost or damaged packets to be transmitted
Network management protocols need to place as low a burden on the network as possible Both types of applications use the simpler User Datagram Protocol (UDP) instead of TCP

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Figure 2-16: TCP and UDP at the Transport Layer, Continued

Protocol TCP UDP

Layer
Connection-Oriented? Reliable? Burden on the two hosts Burden on the network

Transport
Yes Yes High High

Transport
No No Low Low
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Why Make TCP Reliable?

Two reasons: 1. The transport layer only involves processing on the two hosts. Reliability is a heavy process. It would be far more expensive to make the internet or data link layer reliable because this would require complex processing on many routers or switches, respectively. 2. TCPs reliability fixes errors at the transport layer and all lower layers in the process. This allows the transport layer to give the application clean data.
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Figure 2-17: A Complex Application Protocol: The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
Some application protocols are simple
HTTP: Simple request-response message cycle shown in Figure 2-2

Some application protocols are complex (Figure 217)

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) for e-mail

More than a dozen messages must be exchanged to send an e-mail message

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6. Vertical Communication Between Layer Processes on the Same Host

Figure 2-18: Layered Communication on the Source Host

The process begins when a browser creates an HTTP request message

Application Process Passes Message Down to Transport Process Transport Process

HTTP Message

HTTP TCP Message Hdr

Encapsulation of HTTP Message in Data Field of TCP Segment 2-54

Figure 2-18: Layered Communication on the Source Host, Continued

When a layer process (N) creates a message, it passes it down to the nextlower-layer process (N-1) immediately
The receiving process (N-1) will encapsulate the Layer N message, that is, place it in the data field of its own (N-1) message

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Figure 2-18: Layered Communication on the Source Host, Continued

Transport Process

HTTP TCP Message Hdr

Internet Process

HTTP TCP IP Message Hdr Hdr

Encapsulation of TCP Segment in Data Field of IP Packet 2-56

Figure 2-18: Layered Communication on the Source Host, Continued

Internet Process

HTTP TCP IP Message Hdr Hdr

Data Link Process

Eth HTTP TCP IP Eth Trlr Message Hdr Hdr Hdr

Encapsulation of IP Packet in Data Field of Ethernet Frame 2-57

Figure 2-18: Layered Communication on the Source Host, Continued

Data Link Process

Eth HTTP TCP IP Eth Trlr Message Hdr Hdr Hdr

Physical Process

Physical Layer converts the bits of the frame into signals.

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Figure 2-18: Layered Communication on the Source Host, Continued

The following is the final frame for a an HTTP message on an Ethernet LAN

Eth HTTP TCP IP Eth Trlr Message Hdr Hdr Hdr L2 L5 L4 L3 L2

Notice the Pattern: From Right to Left: L2, L3, L4, L5, maybe L2 Start with the highest-layer message (in this case, 5) Add headers for each lower layer (L4, L3, and L2, in this case)

Dont forget the possible trailing L2 trailer

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Figure 2-19: Decapsulation on the Destination Host

Eth HTTP TCP IP Eth Trlr Message Hdr Hdr Hdr

Data Link Process

Physical Process

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Figure 2-19: Decapsulation on the Destination Host, Continued

HTTP TCP IP Message Hdr Hdr

Internet Process

Eth HTTP TCP IP Eth Trlr Message Hdr Hdr Hdr

Data Link Process

Decapsulation of IP Packet from Data Field of Ethernet Frame 2-61

Figure 2-19: Decapsulation on the Destination Host, Continued

HTTP TCP Message Hdr

Transport Process

HTTP TCP IP Message Hdr Hdr

Internet Process

Decapsulation of TCP Segment from Data Field of IP Packet 2-62

Figure 2-19: Decapsulation on the Destination Host, Continued

HTTP Message

Application Process

HTTP TCP Message Hdr

Transport Process

Decapsulation of HTTP Message from Data Field of TCP Segment 2-63

Figure 2-20: Layered End-to-End Communication

Source and Destination Hosts Have 5 Layers

App Trans Int DL Phy

Switches Have Two Layers --Each Switch Port Has One Layer (1)

Routers Have Three Layers --Each Router Port Has Two Layers (1&2)

Source Host

Switch 1

Switch 2

Router 1

Switch 3

Router Destination 2 Host

2-64

Figure 2-21: Combining Horizontal and Vertical Communication

Hypertext Transfer Protocol App Trans Int DL Phy Source Host Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol

Switch 1

Switch 2

Router 1

Switch 3

Router Destination Host 2 2-65

7. OSI, TCP/IP, and Other Standards Architectures

Figure 2-22: The Hybrid TCP/IP-OSI Architecture

Broad Purpose Hybrid TCP/IP-OSI OSI Communication between applications Internetworking Transmission within a single LAN or WAN Application Application (Layer 5) Presentation Session

TCP/IP

Application

Transport (Layer 4)
Internet (Layer 3) Data Link (Layer 2)

Transport
Network Data Link

Transport
Internet Use OSI Standards Here

Physical (Layer 1)

Physical

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Figure 2-23: OSI and TCP/IP

OSI
Standards Agency or Agencies ISO (International Organization for Standardization) ITU-T (International Telecommunications Union Telecommunications Standards Sector)

TCP/IP
IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)

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Figure 2-23: OSI and TCP/IP, Continued

OSI
Dominance Nearly 100% dominant at physical and data link layers Various

TCP/IP
70%-80% dominant at the internet and transport layers. Mostly RFCs (requests for comments)

Documents are Called

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Figure 2-24: OSI Layers

Layer 1: OSI Physical Layer Standards
Nearly always used in the hybrid TCP/IP-OSI architecture

Layer 2: OSI Data Link Layer Standards

Nearly always used in the hybrid TCP/IP-OSI architecture

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Figure 2-24: OSI Layers, Continued

Layer 3: OSI Network Layer Standards
Same function as internet layer standards in TCP/IP But OSI network layer standards are incompatible with TCP/IP internet layer standards Rarely used

Layer 4: OSI Transport Layer Standards

Same function as transport layer in TCP/IP But OSI transport layer standards are incompatible with TCP/IP transport layer standards

Rarely used
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Figure 2-24: OSI Layers, Continued

Layer 5: OSI Session Layer Standards
Initiate and maintain a connection between application programs on different computers Nothing like this layer in TCP/IP Rarely used because OSI is rarely used above the data link layer and below the application layer

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Figure 2-24: OSI Layers, Continued

Layer 6: OSI Presentation Layer Standards
Designed to handle data formatting differences between the computers, data compression, and encryption.
Rarely used this way because OSI standards are rarely used above the data link layer and below the application layer In practice, a category for general OSI file format standards used in multiple applications JPEG, etc. These standards are widely used
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Figure 2-24: OSI Layers, Continued

Layer 7: OSI Application Layer
For other application-specific matters

Some OSI application layer standards are used

Run over TCP/IP transport/internet layer processes Almost always without actual session and presentation layer processes

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Figure 2-25: Other Major Standards Architectures

IPX/SPX
Used by older Novell NetWare file servers
Popular option for newer Novell NetWare file servers

SNA (Systems Network Architecture)

Used by IBM mainframe computers

AppleTalk
Used by Apple Macintoshes
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Figure 2-26: Characteristics of Protocols Discussed in the Chapter

Layer Protocol ConnectionOriented /Connectionless Connectionless Reliable/ Unreliable

5 (App) 4 (Transport) 4 (Transport) 3 (Internet) 2 (Data Link)

HTTP TCP UDP IP Ethernet

Unreliable Reliable Unreliable Unreliable Unreliable

Connectionoriented
Connectionless Connectionless Connectionless

Note: Only TCP is connection-oriented and reliable 2-76

8. Topics Covered

Topics Covered
Standards govern the semantics and syntax of messages
HTTP: Text request and response messages Data field, header, and trailer

Header and trailer subdivided into fields

Reliability
In TCP, receiver sends ACKs Senders retransmit non-acknowledged segments
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Topics Covered
Connection-oriented versus connectionless
TCP is connection-oriented
HTTP is connectionless

Hybrid TCP/IP-OSI Architecture

OSI is nearly 100% dominant at Layers 1 and 2 TCP/IP is 70% to 80% dominant at Layers 3 and 4

Situation at Layer 5 is complex

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Topics Covered Hybrid TCP/IP-OSI Standards Architecture

5. Application layer (application-to-application)
4. Transport layer (host-to-host) 3. Internet layer (across an internet) 2. Data link layer (across a switched network) 1. Physical layer (between adjacent devices)

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Topics Covered Ethernet

Source and destination addresses are 48 bits long
Switches forward packets by destination addresses Data field encapsulates an IP packet

Unreliable: if detects an error, drops the frame

Internet Protocol (IP)

32-bit addresses Show 32 bits on each line Unreliable: checks headers for errors but discards
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Topics Covered Vertical Communication on the Source Host

Layer process creates message and then sends the message to the next-lower layer
Next-lower layer encapsulates the message in its own message This continues until the final frame at the data link layer

Vertical Communication on the Destination Host

Decapsulation and passing up
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Topics Covered

Not All Devices Have All Layers

Hosts have all five
Routers have only the lowest three Switches have only the lowest two

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Topics Covered

OSI Architecture
Divides application layer into three layers Session Presentation Application

Other Standards Architectures

IPX/SPX SNA AppleTalk
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