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INTRODUCTION
Rock is defined as a mixtures formed of aggregates of one or more minerals (aggregate of minerals). Rocks can be formed by many different processes. Some are formed from: (1) Crystallization of a melts (igneous) magma (intrusive) and lava (extrusive) (2) Solidifying sediments like sand or clay (sedimentary) (3) Re-crystallizing previously formed rocks in the solid state (metamorphic) (4) Some are formed by crystallization from hot aqueous fluids (hydrothermal) Rocks that are formed by crystallization of a melt are igneous. These may be formed at depth (intrusive or plutonic), or they may form on the surface (extrusive or volcanic). In general, igneous rocks that cool rapidly (i.e. volcanic rocks) are very fine-grained; whereas rocks that cool slowly (i.e. plutonic rocks) are coarse-grained. Rocks that are formed on the surface of the Earth by solidification (lithification) of weathered or dissolved material are sedimentary. These are generally classified by the size of the particles, although the compositions change systematically with particle size.
Contd
Rocks that form by recrystallization in the solid state are metamorphic. They may be metamorphosed from sedimentary, igneous, metamorphic, or hydrothermal rocks. Rocks that form by crystallization from hot aqueous fluids are hydrothermal. These are commonly formed near intrusive igneous bodies. This is a very efficient way to concentrate the elements of low natural abundance, so many of the economically important ore minerals are formed this way. Rocks are materials that compose the earth's crust, the outermost zonal structure of the earth. The unconsolidated soils and sediments that overlie the hard rocks over most of the earth's crust are simply materials that result from rock weathering processes, the physical and chemical breakdown or rocks under the influence of climatic and biological factors operating over the surface of the crust.
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Civil engineers have to deal with rock and soils during various stages in the process of construction, be it a road, a tunnel or a dam. From the stage of planning to the execution of a construction project, the engineer must have a basic appreciation of the engineering behavior of rocks and soils under various conditions. From the investigations of the site of a proposed project, the design and construction of the foundation to the construction of the superstructure, rocks and soils are involved to some extent. Hence, it becomes imperative for engineers to have some basic geological appreciation of rocks and soils in order to understand the engineering limits to which these materials can be subjected to and as a suitable background to the further study of soil mechanics and foundation engineering.
Magma is believed to exist essentially in a viscous fluid state and has a tendency to move under external influence of varying hydrostatic pressures and thus becomes mobile. It moves from deeper zones to higher zones of the crust through forceful injections into fractures and faults in the adjacent rocks or by process of assimilation of the surrounding rocks thus changing its composition in the process.
Igneous Rock
What Is Magma?
Magma is hot molten mobile rock.
Contd
As magma cools, minerals crystallize at different temperatures. There are relatively few minerals which are important in the formation of igneous rocks. This is because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich in only certain elements: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, and magnesium. Analysis of igneous rock shows that the abundant elements are as shown in the given table. Gases include: Carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, water vapour. Minerals present in Igneous Rock: Quartz, Orthoclase, Plagioclase, Muscovite, Biotite, Amphibole, Olivine.
Oxygen O2 46.6% Silicon Si 27.7%
Aluminium
AI
8.1%
Magnesium
Mg
2.1%
Calcium
Ca
3.6%
Sodium
Na
2.8%
Potassium
2.6%
Ferum
Fe
5.0%
Grain size
Based on predominant grain size that reflects the depth at which molten rocks form within the Earth. Three types of rock can be identified: a) Volcanic rocks (extrusive) solidify close to the Earth's surface. Because cool quickly they have a finer-grained matrix called groundmass. They may contain some larger crystals that formed earlier further down called phenocrysts. Plutonic rocks (intrusive) form deeper within the Earth and the slower cooling allows them to crystallize as coarse-grained rocks. Hypabyssal or sub volcanic rocks form at intermediate depths generally as dykes and sills and so tend to be medium-grained.
b)
c)
Volcanic or extrusive igneous rocks form when the magma cools and crystallizes on the surface of the Earth.
Intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks where in the magma crystallizes at depth in the Earth.
Plagioclase
Plagioclase is the most common mineral in igneous rocks. Most plagioclase appears frosty white to gray-white in igneous rocks, but in gabbro it can be dark gray to blue-gray. If examine plagioclase with a hand lens or binocular microscope, can often see the stair-step like cleavage and possibly striations (parallel grooves) on some cleavage faces. Some potassium feldspar is white like plagioclase, but is usually a safe bet to identify any frosty white grains in igneous rocks as plagioclase. Expect to find plagioclase in most phaneritic igneous rocks and often as phenocryts in aphanitic rocks.
The illustration given shows a large chalky white grain of plagioclase. The chalky appearance is a result of weathering of plagioclase to clay and this can often be used to aid in identification.
Quartz
Quartz is also a very common mineral in some igneous rocks. It can be difficult to recognize since it does not look like the beautiful, clear hexagonal-shaped mineral as seen in mineral collections or for sale in rock shops. In igneous rocks it is often medium to dark gray and has a rather amorphous shape. If look it with a hand lens you will notice the glassy appearance and lack of any smooth cleavage surfaces. You will also find quartz grains resist scratching with a nail or pocket knife, you can expect to find abundant quartz in granite and as phenocryts in the volcanic rock rhyolite. In some other common igneous rocks you may find a few scattered grains of quartz, but it is often conspicuous by its absence. Once recognized, quartz is rarely confused with any other common rock-forming mineral.
Potassium Feldspar
Pink is the motto for potassium feldspar.
As orthoclase is a feldspar, you should also see the stair-step cleavage characteristic of feldspars. Unfortunately, all potassium feldspar is not pink, microcline is usually white.
How does one distinguish white potassium feldspar from plagioclase? The answer is that in hand samples it is nearly impossible. Sometimes striations on cleavage faces allow you to differentiate the two. Plagioclase has striations, potassium feldspar does not. But in most cases any white feldspar is identified as plagioclase and any pink feldspar as orthoclase. Expect to find orthoclase as a common constituent of granite and matrix material in rhyolite. In the latter rock the orthoclase is too finegrained to be seen even with a binocular microscope, but its presence gives most rhyolites a distinct pinkish cast.
The image given shows several large grains of the potassium feldspar, orthoclase; note the pinkish cast.
Muscovite
Muscovite is not a common mineral in igneous rocks, but rather an accessory that occurs in small amounts. It is shiny and silvery, but oxidizes to look almost golden. In fact, more prospectors probably confused muscovite in their pans for gold than they did pyrite (fool's gold). Muscovite has excellent cleavage and will scratch easily. If you suspect muscovite is present, try taking a nail to it. It should flake off the rock.
Muscovite occurs in some granite and occasionally in diorite. Unlike, its close cousin, biotite, it rarely occurs as phenocrysts in volcanic rocks.
Biotite
Biotite occurs in small amounts in many igneous rocks. It is black, shiny and often occurs in small hexagonal (6-sided) books. It is often confused with amphibole and pyroxene. Like muscovite, it is soft and has good cleavage. Try scratching the black grains with a nail or knife. Biotite will flake off easily. Biotite is differentiated from amphibole by shape of the crystals (hexagonal for biotite and elongated or needle-like for amphibole) and by hardness (biotite is soft, amphibole is hard). It is differentiated from pyroxene by hardness, color (biotite is black and pyroxene dark green) and occurrence (biotite is found in light-colored igneous rocks like granites, diorites and rhyolites while pyroxene occurs in dark-colored rocks like gabbro and basalt). Expect to find biotite as a common accessory in granite, and as phenocrysts in some rhyolites.
Amphibole
Amphibole is a rather common mineral in all igneous rocks, however, it is only abundant in the intermediate igneous rocks.
Pyroxene
Pyroxene is common only in mafic igneous rocks. Occurs as short, stubby, dark green crystals. It has poor cleavage in 2 directions and cleavage surfaces are often hard to see with even a binocular microscope.
Association is the best guide for the identification of pyroexene. It is usually restricted to dark-colored rocks (the image below is of pyroxene is a very rare light-colored rock called shonkenite) such as gabbro or basalt.
Olivine
Olivine is common only in ultramafic igneous rocks like dunite and peridotite. Occurs as small, light green, glassy crystals (see image below). It has no cleavage. The texture of olivine in igneous rocks is often termed sugary (like sugar paper). Although olivine occurs in gabbro and basalt, it is far more common in peridotite and dunite. Because of the light green color and sugary texture it is rarely confuded with other rock-forming minerals.
Rock Texture
The most important distinction in igneous rocks is texture, which is related to the size and shape of the constituent crystallite grains. Igneous rocks have distinctive textures, characterized mostly by the interlocking grains that grow from cooling magma. In Igneous rocks, the cooling history and environment is the function of the formation of textures. Magmas located deep within the Earth's crust cools slowly and thus the individual minerals grains may grow.
In contrast, lava extruded at the Earth's surface cools rapidly, where mineral grains do not have time to grow, therefore cannot be seen without the aid of a microscope. The rocks appear massive and structureless.
Phaneritic texture
Individual grains are large enough and visible to naked eye. (Fig. 3.2) Grains approximately equal in size, form interlocking mosaic and very coarse.
Developed from magmas that cool slowly and common in intrusive bodies.
Examples of phaneritic rocks; phaneritic texture, consists of large grains and can be seen unaided
Aphanetic texture
Individual crystals are so small and cannot be seen unaided. Rocks are massive and experienced rapid cooling that there was no sufficient time for the growth of large crystals. Characteristic of volcanic rock and some intrusive rocks which lost its heat to the surrounding country rock.
Glassy texture
Similar to ordinary glass. Crystals cannot be discerned in a glassy texture, even when the specimen is viewed under high magnification e.g. obsidian.
Porphyritic texture
Larger earlier formed crystals are enclosed by a ground mass of smaller crystals. Cooling history of magma may begin slowly initially which developed coarse crystals and then while partly crystallized the magma may move to another environment in which the cooling is more rapid which precipitate fine crystals around the earlier coarse crystals.
A hand sample and a thin section of porphyritic aphanitic textured rocks. The porphyritic phaneritic texture results from two stages of cooling
Vesicular Texture
This term refers to vesicles (holes, pores, or cavities) within the igneous rock. Vesicles are the result of gas expansion (bubbles), which often occurs during volcanic eruptions.
Vesicular rocks
The image shows a basalt with vesicles, hence the name "vesicular basalt".
Contd
Silica content (SiO2) which also controls the minerals that crystallize is used to further classify igneous rocks as follows: Acid: usually above 63% silica mostly feldspar minerals and quartz, for example granite. Basic: 45 to 55% silica mostly dark minerals plus plagioclase feldspar and/or feldspathoid minerals, for example basalt. Ultra basic: usually less than 45% silica mostly dark minerals such as olivine and pyroxene, for example peridotite.
Feldspar Orthoclase - Plagioclase Trachyte Microsyenite Syenite Andesite Basalt Ultrabasic lavas Peridotite porphyry Peridotite
Extrusive
(Usual Occurrence) Intrusive
Types of Plutons
Plutons differ in terms of size, shape and relationship to the rocks that were intruded by the magma, which are older rocks known as country rocks. A major group of plutons is classified as tabular because they are thin in one dimension as compared with the other two dimensions. Common ones are: (a) Dykes (b) Sills (c) Laccoliths (d) Batholiths
Dykes
Tabular or wall like mass. Results from magma injected into cracks and joints in rocks. Vary in width from a few cm to a few meters but not more than 3 meters wide. Largest known dyke in Zimbabwe, Africa which is 600 km long and average width of 10 km.
Sills
Rising magma follows path of least resistance such as bedding plane, which separates layers of sedimentary rock. Magma injected between the layers form tabular intrusive body parallel to layering. Sills range from few centimeters to hundreds of meters thick and can extend to several kilometers.
Laccoliths
Viscous magma injected between layers of sedimentary rock, tend to uparched the overlying strata forming mushroom shaped. Usually thicker in center and thinner near margin and may give rise to dome shaped hill. Can be several kilometers in diameter and thousands of meters thick and typically porphyritic.
Batholiths
Largest rock bodies in the Earth's crust, generally granitic composition. Cover several thousand square kilometers and may be 60 km thick. Typically form in the deeper zones of mountain belts and are exposed only after considerable uplift and erosion.
Types of plutons
Extrusive Processes
Extrusive rocks are formed from the violent eruption of volcanoes, fissures or cracks in the earth's cracks. Some materials will be emitted with gaseous extrusions into the atmosphere, where they will cool quickly and eventually fall to the earth's surface as volcanic ash and dust. The main product of volcanic action is a lava flow emitted from within the earth as a molten stream which flows over surface of the existing ground until it solidifies. Extrusive rocks are generally distinguished by their usual fine-grained texture.
Minor Intrusions
INTRUSIVE Major Intrusions
Coarsely crystalline
Granite
Granite characterized by a granular texture, has feldspar and quartz (at least 20%) as its two most abundant minerals, In consequence most granite is light-coloured, Biotite or hornblende or both are also present in most granite with accessory apatite, magnetite and sphene. Granites can be fine, medium or coarse-grained depending on grain sizes of the essential minerals and porphyritic or non porphyritic depending on the absence or presence of phenocrysts (usually alkali feldspar) and/or muscovite.
Basalt
Basalt is dark coloured (black to medium grey), fine grained (aphanitic) igneous rock composed of plagioclase, feldspar, pyroxene and magnetite with or without olivine and contain more than 53% by weight of SiO2. Most basalts are non porphyritic but some contain phenocrysts of plagioclase, olivine and pyroxene. Basalt is the world's most abundant lava and is very widespread.
Gabbro
Gabbro is dark coloured, coarse-grained, granular basic igneous rock consisting of essential calcium rich plagioclase, feldspar (approximately 60% augite and orthopyroxene plus or, minus olivine with accessory magnetite or ilmenite. Gabbros result from slow crystallisation of magmas of basaltic composition. Gabbro is widely distributed in both large and small masses. Dykes and thin sills of fine-grained gabbro are especially common. In most of these small intrusions, the mineral grains are so small that they are barely recognizable without aid of microscope. Such gabbros, intermediate in grain size between basalt and normal grabbro, are called dolerite.
Diorite
Diorite - is an intermediate, coarse-grained, granular igneous rock with up to 10% quartz, plagioclase and lesser amount of ferromagnesian minerals. The most common ferromagnesian minerals are hornblende, biotite and pyroxene.
In general, diorite masses are much smaller than those of granites or granodiorite.
Crystallization of Magma
Crystallization of magma is not a simple process. An experiment done by N.L.Bowen (Fig. 3.6) in early 1900s demonstrated that minerals crystallize sequentially as the temperature drops in a silicate magma and that solid crystals can react with the liquid phase of the magma to form new minerals during the crystallization process. To explain crystallization process, assuming that initially we have a basaltic composition at about 1500C. As temperature is slightly lowered, crystals begin to separate from the liquid. There are two crystallization sequences that are observed as the melt cools.
Contd
The engineering properties of extrusive igneous rocks are much less uniform.
Extrusive rocks contains pyroclastic materials and lahar deposits, which are much weaker than crystalline rocks. These rocks may be susceptible to slope failures in excavations and also provide more variable and generally weaker foundation support. In general, the water bearing capacity of extrusive rocks is much greater than extrusive rocks. This property can render the rocks unsuitable or reservoir or tunnel construction. Weathering produces other changes in the rock as well as fracturing. Chemical reactions between the minerals within the rock and air and water gradually form new minerals. Clay minerals are a common product of these alteration processes. The result is a significant loss of strength as the feldspars and ferromagnesian minerals are converted to clay.
In warm humid climates, igneous rock bodies may be mantled with tens of meters of weathered material. The engineering properties of this material are totally different from the properties of unaltered rock.
It is sufficient to note that a network of fractures within a rock mass can greatly increase the potential for failures of natural or excavated slopes and also increase the construction problems of dams, tunnels and other structures.