Steady flow energy equation

( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

+ = +
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2 12 12
z z g
2
C C
h h m W Q


( )
1 2 12 12
u u m W Q = +
( )
1 2 12 12
h h m W Q = +


2
1
W H
c.f. closed system:
Cool
water
steam
Work Heat
Reduced
Source of
heat
Heat engine
The cycle efficiency is defined as
= Work done/Heat supplied = W
out
/Q
high
< 1
The 2nd law states that Q
low
>0, some heat
must be rejected and must be <100%.
A heat engine is a system operating in a
cycle and producing a net quantity of work
from a supply of heat. A heat engine can be
presented as:
T
hot

T
cold

Q
high

Q
low

W
out
=Q
high
-Q
low

Sink of heat
Principle of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
a)If a system is taken through a cycle
and produces work, it must be
exchanging heat with at least two
reservoirs at different temperatures
a heat source and a heat sink.

b)If a system is taken through a cycle
while exchanging heat with only one
reservoir, the work done must be
either zero or positive.

c) Since heat can never be converted
continuously and completely into work,
but the reverse is true, work is a more
valuable form of energy transfer than
heat.
T
hot

T
cold

Q
high

Q
low

W
out

T
hot

Q
high

W
in

Principle of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
Flow processes
W
out

W
in

Compressor
Turbine
Pump
W
out

Throttle
Refrigeration for laboratory
Refrigeration
demonstrator
Air Conditioning
Demonstrator
Evaporator,
cold
Condenser,
hot
Throttle,
pressure
reduced
Compressor,
work
Heat pumps and refrigerators
A heat pump is a thermodynamic machine, which
uses work to extract heat from a low temperature
source, and deliver it to a high temperature sink.
A refrigerator is a heat pump - heat extraction from
the low temperature source is the purpose.
Since heat transfer is the objective, the
effectiveness of heat pumps is measured as the
ratio:
heat transfer to done Work
d transferre heat Useful
e Performanc of t Coefficien =
A heat pump is a device that drives a fluid
around a process, by which heat is transferred
from a cool place to a hot one. This is achieved
by applying work!
Warm
Cool
W
in

Q
high

Q
low

Condenser, p high, T high
Evaporator, p low, T low
Q
high
Q
low
= W
in

p, bar
h,
kJ/kg
For Klea 134a refrigerant
0.1
1
10
100
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
40C
10C
Evaporator
Condenser
Compressor Throttle
Constant
temperature
lines
h
3

h
2
h
1

Compressor work = m (h
3
-h
2
)
Cooling = m (h
2
-h
1
)
Heating = m (h
3
-h
1
)
m

How it works? Relies on vapour-liquid behaviour.

Vapour enters condenser at temperature above t high
and exchanges heat, Q out of condenser to cool the
vapour.
The vapour condenses when it reaches t sat until all is
condensed.
T sat needs to be a few degrees above the t of the hot
reservoir to work properly.
The condensed and slightly sub cooled liquid passes
through the throttle. This reduces the pressure of the
fluid and therefore the t sat reduces to a point just
below the cool reservoir (which contains the
evaporator) temperature.
h m W Q


= +
We know that the throttle is short and should be
well insulated (it often is NOT at all well insulated!!),
and so Q is zero. There is obviously no work no
paddles, pistons, hands etc.
Use the SFEE, where Q and W are rates of heating
and power input and m is the mass flow rate. It is
easy to see that if Q and W are zero, then the
enthalpy entering is the same as that leaving.
Physically this is a LOT harder to understand
because of the complex fluid dynamics going on.
As it enters the evaporator, liquid heats up to t sat
and starts to boil.
By the time it reaches the end of the evaporator, all
is evaporated and the vapour gains a little
superheat.
Air
Conditioning
Two types of air:
1. Atmospheric air
2. Dry air
Just N
2
, O
2
, and
little else
Tables p.16
Dry air plus water
vapour!
Air condition
Dry air
Composed of nitrogen, N
2
and oxygen, O
2
in
approximate proportions by mass: 76.7% N
2

and 23.3% O
2
; by volume, 79% N
2
and 21%
O
2
.
Humid or atmospheric air
Water boils at 100C (b.p.) at a pressure of
1 atmosphere (1.01325 bar), and for lower
pressures, saturation temperature is
correspondingly lower.
Water can evaporate into the air until its
partial pressure equals its saturation
pressure.
Motivation
Comfort air conditioning for people.
Have limited comfort zone due to
requirement for steady core body
temperature of 37C.
Produce heat and moisture into
atmosphere.
Heat at ~80W resting, 120W office work, up
to 400W physical working.
Produce sweat at varying rates and 100%
humid air during respiration.
Control conditioning for computers.
Have limited comfort zone requirement for
steady core temperature and dry
conditions.
Gibbs Dalton Law of Partial pressure
The pressure of a mixture of gases, p, is equal to
the sum of pressures of individual constituents,
their partial pressure, when each occupies a
volume equal to that of the mixture at the
temperature of the mixture.

=
i
p p
at less than b.p.
At lower temperatures, p
s

is correspondingly lower.
At the lower temperatures,
free surface water can
evaporate until the partial
pressure in the
atmosphere is p
s
.
After this point, only equal
exchange of vapour
between atmosphere and
free liquid water surface
occurs.
water
atmosphere
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 20 40 60 80 100
T
s
[C]
p
s

[
b
a
r
]
Hygrometry (or Psychrometry)
Study of atmospheric air i.e. air and water
vapour mixtures.
This is relevant to air conditioning plant, and
cooling tower analysis.
The level of humidity is defined in two ways:
Specific humidity, eThis is the ratio of masses
of water vapour to air in a given volume, V.
v
v
/V
m
/V m
(air)
m
(vapour)
m

s
a
a
s
a
s
= = =
Because m
s
/V = 1/v
s
also m
a
/V = 1/v
a

P R
P R
=
a s
s a
hence
It is useful to define specific humidity in terms
of partial pressure. Water vapour can be
regarded as an ideal gas when the partial
pressure is below about 20 kPa
(corresponding to p
s
for 60C). If both are
treated as perfect gases, then:
T R
P
=
V
m
T R m = V
P
and
T R
P
=
V
m
T R m = V
P
a
a a
a a a
s
s s
s s s

( )
=
s atmos
s
P - P 461
P 287
=
s atmos
s
P - P
P 0.622

Since R
a
is 287 J/kg.K and R
s
is 461 J/kg.K and
P
atmos
= P
a
+ P
s
, this equation becomes:
Relative Humidity
%) a as expressed (Sometimes
P
P
=
g
s

Ps = Partial pressure of water vapour
Pg = Partial pressure of vapour if the mixture is
saturated at the temperature T of the
mixture.
Dew Point Temperature
If the temperature of the air falls until the
saturation point or 100% relative humidity
occurs, the air is at the DEWPOINT temp.

ps
sat
dew
)
T
=
T

pt
it is the temp at which air becomes saturated
when cooled at const pressure (since w =
const, P
s
is const during cooling).
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
State diagram for phase change
T-v diagram for steam/water
T

[

C
]

v [m
3
/kg]
221.2 bar
1.01325 bar
Superheat
Liquid-vapour
mixture
f
g
0.02337 bar
0.008719 bar
Temperatures above
this line give vapour,
on the line, vapour
and liquid i.e.
dew!
Wet bulb/dry bulb thermometers
Air flow
Dry bulb Wet bulb
t
db
t
wb

Water
reservoir
Muslin sock
If humidity is less
than 100%, water
will evaporate from
the sock and cause
the temperature of
the bulb to drop and
the thermometer to
register a lower
temperature than the
dry bulb.
This temperature
relates to the relative
humidity.
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Dry bulb Temp C
Specific humidity,
i.e. moisture
content [kg/kg]
Psychrometric chart
Air conditioning plant
This regulates the humidity and temperature of a
supply of atmospheric air.
1 to 2 Work input from fan
2 to 3 Heat rejected, mixture saturates, liquid water is drained to 4
3 to 5 Heat supplied to give desired humidity () at temperature T
4-Drain
1 2 3
5
Cool Hot Fan
A
i
r

i
n

A
i
r

o
u
t

Liquid
Analysis assumptions:
1) Mixture pressure (Pa +Ps) is constant throughout
2) SFEE applies across any section; particularly the cooler
w4 w4 s3 s3 a3 a3 23 s2 s2 a2 a2
h m h m h m Q h m h m

+ + = + +
(-ve)
Energy in Energy out
4-Drain
1 2 3
5
Cool Hot Fan
A
i
r

i
n
A
i
r

o
u
t
Liquid
4-Drain
1 2 3
5
Cool Hot Fan
A
i
r

i
n
A
i
r

o
u
t
Liquid
w4 s3 s2
m m m

+ =
100% =
3
2 a2
T at air dry of enthalpy h =
2 s2
T at vapour water enthalpy h =
4 w4
T at liquid water enthalpy h =