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TOFD Technique
Overview Calibration Applications Summary
& Limitations
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TOFD Overview
Forward
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Diffraction
Modification or deflection of sound beam Sound striking defect causes oscillation Ends of defect become point sources Not related to orientation of defect Weaker signal than reflected needs higher gain Sharp defects provide best emitters Tips signals are located accurately Time of flight of tip signals used to size
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Diffraction
The incoming wave vibrates the defect. Each point of the defect generates new elementary spherical waves called diffraction
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Waves
Incident wave
Diffracted waves All directions Low energy Reflected wave FLAW Independent of incidence angle Diffracted waves
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Amplitude
Angle
2 Tip diffraction 1 2 Time TOF
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Signals
Signals
Received
Lateral wave Subsurface Back-wall echo Mode converted (shear wave) echo
Define
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A-Scan Signals
Transmitter Receiver
Lateral wave
Back-wall reflection LW BW
Upper tip
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Lower tip
surface breaking crack Back wall breaking crack Horizontal planar defect
Receiver
Crack tip
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Lateral wave
Tip
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LW
BW
Reflection echo
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Data Visualization
Amplitude + White
Time
Black
Data Visualization
LW A-scan
D-scan
BW
Upper surface
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Back wall
Calibration Tools
PCS
A-scan
LW T Parameters: PCS, Thickness, velocity, Probe delay, Lateral wave or Back wall
Not all of the parameters need to be known
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BW
D-scan
Measurement Tools
d1
h d1 t1 t2
A-scan
Cursors
Build-in calculator
l
t1,t2 d1, d2 and h are automatically calculated P D-scan
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S
Receiver
t0 d
t0
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S
Receiver
dmin dmax t2
Transverse Scan
Time will be minimum when probes are symmetrically positioned over the defect
Lateral wave
Upper surface
Back-wall
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Lack of Fusion
Porosity
Source: Ginzel
Recommended Solution
TOFD:
YES BUT: do not forget the good things offered by the standard Pulse-Echo technique SOLUTION: do both TOFD and PE simultaneously, without reducing the scan speed
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Calibration
PCS
A-scan
LW
T
PCS, Thickness, velocity, Probe delay, Lateral wave or Back wall
BW
Typical multi-channel UT instrument is very user friendly and guides you with a software Wizard
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D-scan
Weld 1
(PL4882)
Toe crack
Porosity
12.5 mm
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Parallel Scan
LW A-scan
D-scan
BW
Upper surface
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Back-wall
Recommended Solution
PE 45 SW
TOFD
PE 60 SW
The system allows for simultaneous acquisition and analysis (inTomoview only) of TOFD and PE
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Transmitter
Receiver
Lateral wave
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Transmitter
Receiver
Lateral wave
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Transmitter
Receiver
Lateral wave
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TOFD Advantages
Excellent PoD for mid-wall defects Good detection of mis-oriented defects Can characterize surface-breaking defects Excellent sizing for defects in transverse TOFD mode, especially with signal processing Tolerable sizing for defects in linear mode Works very well in conjunction with pulse-echo
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TOFD Limitations
Dead
zone of ~3mm at outer surface Potential dead zone at inner surface Prone to noise Over emphasizes some benign defects, e.g. porosity, laminations, interlamellar LoF Not easy to interpret
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Is the best defect sizing technique available when correctly set-up Use in conjunction with pulse-echo for code and PoD reasons
Signals
Lateral Wave
Back-wall Echo
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Calculator
TOFD probe separation can be calculated with basic mathematical formula or Excel calculator tools
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Calculator
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Calculator
-80 5 -5
Z-axis (mm.)
-70
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
-15 -25
-13.6
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Calculator
-80 5 -5
Z-axis (mm.)
-70
-60
-50
-40 -30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
-6.6
-23.3
Increase refracted angle to 65 improves coverage without compromising resolution (for these specific conditions) PCS remains the same.
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Flaw Tip
Flaw lengths parallel to the surface can be measured from the TOFD image by fitting hyperbolic cursors similar to SAFT correction but SAFT post-processes the data
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TOFD - SAFT
Pre-SAFT processing
Post-SAFT Processing
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Limitations of TOFD
Cannot
detect all defects Limited coverage results from two potential dead zones
Dead zone near the surface
as a result of the lateral wave
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1 2
The crack blocks the Lateral Wave And the lower tip appears on the A-scan
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1 3
4 2
2
3
3
4
Porosity
1
2 1
Transverse Crack
1 1 2
1 2 3
3
4
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Concave Root
1
1
2
2 3
1 2 3
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Choosing an Angle
Optimum Upper tip q 64 Optimum Lower tip q 68
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TOFD Advantages
Diffracted
rather than reflected signals Longitudinal waves B-scan type imaging (side view) Accurate sizing capability (height) Fast scanning Interpretation of defects Less sensitive to defect orientation
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TOFD Limitations
Blind
area - near surface, backwall Weak signals Flaw classification limitation Interpretation of defects Sensitive to grain noise
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7706 (1993) Guide to calibration and setting-up of the ultrasonic time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD) technique for detection, location, and sizing of flaws. British Standards Institute 1993. pr EN 583-6 (1995) Nondestructive testingultrasonic examination - Part 6: Time-offlight diffraction technique as a method for defect detection and sizing.
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VIII Code Case 2235 (2000 Edition) Ultrasonic examination to be in accordance with ASME Section V, Article 4 Alternatively, for techniques that do not use amplitude recording levels, . This has opened the door for TOFD to be used on Section VIII pressure vessels
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Root Crack
TOFD technique Root crack defect
X-Ray
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TOFD technique
Porosity
Porosity defect
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TOFD technique
Slag inclusion
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TOFD technique
Root Concavity
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Over Penetration
TOFD technique Over penetration defect
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X-Ray
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