The Autonomic Nervous System

Dr. Imam Ghozali, SpAn.,Mkes

Disampaikan pada kuliah semester Genap Univer sitas Malahayati

The Nervous and Endocrine Systems

Dr. Imam Ghozali, SpAn.,MKes
Disampaikan pada kuliah pendahuluan Maret 2010

Function:
A. Two systems in the body are responsible for integration = regulation of other body systems
Nervous System Endocrine System

B. Why are regulatory systems needed? maintenance of homeostasis

How do the Nervous and Endocrine Systems Differ?

Nervous System
Rapid acting Involved in control of things that change over short time periods (seconds to minutes) Examples
Heart rate Respiration Voluntary muscle contractions

Endocrine System
More slowly acting Involved in control of things that change over long time periods (minutes to years) Examples
Growth reproduction

II. Basic Design and Evolution of Nervous Systems:

A. Design Sensory = afferent nerves, carry info to central processor as action potentials a) Interprets incoming information, b) generates response when needed Motor = efferent Central Processor nerves, carry (brain or ganglion) info toward effectors Effectors (muscles or glands) Organs that can cause a change in the

Sensory Receptors
Special nervous tissue to collect information

III. Overall Design of the Vertebrate Nervous System

1. Function = integration

A.

B.

1. Function -

(Collects sensory info) 2. Parts are nerves and sensory receptors

2. Parts

The Brain = site of the highest levels of integration

Cerebrum = newest part of the vertebrate brain, site of all higher brain functions, increases in size from fish to mammals Hypothalamus = controls ancient drives and regulates the pituitary gland, essentially conserved in all vertebrates

Cerebellum = balance and motor control, size depends on intricacy of movements Brainstem = midbrain, pons and medulla, regulates all autonomic functions, essentially conserved in all vertebrates

Pituitary gland = endocrine gland

Spinal Cord function connects the brain to everything below the neck and conducts simple information processing in the form of the reflex arch

The Withdrawal Reflex = negative feedback loop that 2) Nocioreceptor 6) Sensory info is controls pain in hand is conveyed to the
1) Hand contacts sharp or hot object activated, action potential conveys info to spinal cord over spinal nerve brain, reaches cerebrum after reflex

5) Biceps muscle contracts and removes hand from painful stimulus

4) Motor neuron conveys info to biceps muscle over spinal nerve

3) Interneuron in spinal cord coveys info to motor neuron

Fig. 28.1B

The Peripheral Nervous System contains nerves and sensory receptors

2. Sensory receptors are located throughout the body (a. general receptors) or are localized in one place (b. special receptors), they can also be classified based on (c) what they detect

1. Nerves can be (a) spinal (arise from the spinal cord) or (b) cranial (arise from the brain); groups of nerve cell processes bundled together with connective tissue

1. Mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical stimulation (touch, vibration, etc.)

Ears and semi-circular canals are special mechanoreceptors

Touch and proprioreception (not shown) are general mechanoreceptive senses

2. Thermoreceptors

Respond to temperature Examples

Mammalian thermoreceptors located throughout skin and hypothalamus (general receptors) Pit organs of snakes are special thermoreceptors

3. Nocioreceptors respond to painful stimuli (probably chemicals released from damaged tissues) general receptors

4. Photoreceptors respond to light

Vertebrate eyes are special receptors

5. Chemoreceptors respond to chemicals

Smell (a special receptor in mammals) allows perception of far chemicals

Taste (special receptor in mammals) allows perception of close chemicals

The Peripheral Nervous System is Divided into the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems

Both divisions have motor and sensory subdivisions

Activation causes adrenalin release

Actions of the Sympathetic versus Parasympathetic Nervous Systems

Some Endocrine System Definitions

A. Endocrine glands are ductless glands that release a product into the bloodstream for transport to body targets

B. Exocrine glands (not shown) release their products through ducts onto the body surface or into the lumen of an organ

Some Endocrine System Definitions (continued)

C. Hormones are chemical signals produced by an endocrine gland that act at some distance from the gland

D. Targets are organs, tissues or cells capable of responding to the hormone due to the presence of a receptor that binds the hormone

Mechanism of Hormone Action A. Gene Activation

1. Must be lipid soluble hormones (ex. Steroids) 4. How can two different targets exhibit two different responses to the same hormone?

2. Response is slow (1 to many hours)

3. steps

Mechanism of Hormone Action B. Second Messengers

1. Protein and other hormones that cannot pass the plasma membrane 4. How can two different targets exhibit two different response to the same hormone?

2. Rapid response, within minutes

3. steps

Example of Negative Feedback Regulation in the Endocrine System insulins control of blood glucose levels 3. Insulin
1. Eating due to low blood glucose/hunger leads to digestion and glucose absorption secreting cells in the pancreas (in Islets of Langerhans) sense high glucose levels (i.e. serve as the sensor) and release insulin (i.e. serve as the central processor and send a chemical signal to body)

2. Blood glucose (controlled variable) is elevated 4. Most body cells take up glucose in response to insulin binding, serve as targets for the hormone and thus as effectors

5. Blood glucose levels return to normal and insulin release stops

ANS

Introduction

The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is the system of motor neurons that innervate the smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands of the body By controlling these effectors, the ANS regulates such visceral functions as
Heart rate Blood pressure Digestion Urination

Introduction

The ANS is the general visceral motor division of the peripheral nervous system and is distinct from the general somatic motor and brachial motor divisions which innervate skeletal muscles

Introduction

The general visceral sensory system continuously monitors the activities of the visceral organs so that the autonomic motor neurons can make adjustments as necessary to ensure optimal performance of the visceral organs

Introduction

The stability of our internal environment depends largely on the autonomic nervous system Autonomic nervous system(ANS) receives signals from visceral organs The ANS makes adjustments as necessary to ensure optical support for body systems

Comparison of ANS & PNS

Recall that the somatic motor system innervates skeletal muscles Each somatic motor neuron runs from the central nervous system all the way to the muscle being innervated, and that each motor unit consists of a single neuron plus the skeletal muscle cells it innervates Typical somatic motor axons are thick, heavily myelinated fibers that conduct nerve impulses rapidly

Comparison of ANS & PNS

Comparison of ANS & PNS

In the somatic system

Cell bodies are within the central nervous system Axons extend to the muscles they serve Somatic motor fibers are thick, heavily myelinated Type A fibers that conduct impulses very rapidly

Comparison of ANS & PNS

In the autonomic nervous system

The motor unit is a two neuron chain The cell body of the first neuron, the preganglionic neuron, resides in the brain or spinal cord Its axon, the preganglionic axon, synapses with the second motor neuron, the postganglionic neuron, in an autonomic ganglion outside the central nervous system The postganglionic axon then extends to the effector organ

Comparison of ANS & PNS

Compare the one motor neuron of the somatic motor division with the two neuron chain of the autonomic nervous system

Efferent Pathways and Ganglia

Axons of most preganglionic neurons run from the CNS to synapse in a peripheral autonomic ganglion with a postganglionic neuron

Efferent Pathways and Ganglia

Axons of postganglionic neurons run from the ganglion to the effectors (cardiac and smooth muscle fibers and glands)

Efferent Pathways and Ganglia

Preganglionic axons are lightly myelinated thin fibers Postganglionic axons are even thinner and are unmyelinated Conduction though the autonomic chain is slower than through the somatic motor Many pre and postganglionic fibers are incorporated into spinal or cranial nerves for most of their course

Efferent Pathways and Ganglia

Remember that autonomic ganglion are motor ganglia, containing the cell bodies of motor neurons They are sites of synapse and information transmission from pre to postganglionic neurons Also note that the somatic motor division lacks ganglia entirely

Neurotransmitter Effects

All somatic motor neurons release acetylcholine at their synapses with their effectors, skeletal muscle fibers The effect is always excitatory, and if stimulation reaches threshold, the skeletal muscle fibers contacts

Neurotransmitter Effects

Neurotransmitters released onto visceral effector organs by postganglionic autonomic fibers include
Norepinephrine secreted by most sympathetic fibers Acetylcholine released by parasympathetic fibers

Depending on the receptors present on the target organ, its response to these neurotransmitters may be either excitation or inhibition

Overlap of Somatic & Autonomic

Higher brain centers regulate and coordinate both somatic and visceral motor activities Nearby spinal nerves and many cranial nerves contain both somatic and autonomic fibers Most of the bodys adaptations to changing internal and external conditions involve both skeletal activity and enhanced response of visceral organs

Divisions of ANS

There are two division of the ANS

Parasympathetic Sympathetic

Generally the two divisions have chains of two motor neurons that innervate same visceral organs but cause essentially opposite effects If one division stimulates certain smooth muscle to contract or a gland to secrete, the other division inhibits that action Through this process of duel innervation the two systems counterbalance each other

Divisions of ANS

The sympathetic part mobilizes the body during extreme situations (such as fear, exercise or rage) The parasympathetic division allows us to unwind as it performs maintenance activities and conserves body energy

Divisions of ANS

Both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions issue from the brain and spinal cord Two neuron pathways are shown for both divisions Solid lines indicate preganglionic axons while broken lines indicate post-ganglionic axons

Sympathetic Division

The sympathetic division is responsible for the fight, flight, or fright response Its activity is evident during vigorous exercise, excitement, or emergencies Physiological changes like a pounding heart, fast and deep breathing, dilated eye pupils, and cold, sweaty skin are signs of the mobilization of the sympathetic division, which help us survive danger

Sympathetic Division

Sympathetic responses prepare our bodies to cope with physiological stressors While sympathetic response may increases the capacities of some systems they may in fact inhibit non-essential functions such as digestion and urinary tract motility

Sympathetic Division

The sympathetic system also innervates blood vessels, sending signals to the smooth muscles in their walls Even though sympathetic input causes the smooth muscle in some vessels (in skeletal muscle) to relax so that the vessel dilates, the bulk of sympathetic input signals smooth muscle in blood vessels to contract, producing vasoconstriction

Sympathetic Division

Vasoconstriction results in the narrowing of vessel diameter which forces the heart to work harder to pump blood around the vascular circuit As a result sympathetic activity results in blood pressure to rise during excitement and stress

Role of Sympathetic Division

During exercise the sympathetic division also promotes physiological adjustments

Visceral blood supply is diminished Blood is shunted to working musculature Bronchioles of the lungs dilate to increase ventilation Liver releases more sugar into blood stream to support metabolism

Role of Sympathetic Division

Its activity is evident when we are excited or find ourselves in emergency or threatening situations (frightened) Pounding heart; rapid, deep breathing; cold, sweaty skin; and dilated eyes are signs Also changes in brain wave patterns Its function is to provide the optimal conditions for an appropriate response to some threat (run / see / think)

Parasympathetic Division

The parasympathetic division is most effective in non-stressful situations This division is chiefly concerned with keeping body energy use as low as possible, even as it directs body processes such as digestion and elimination Resting and digesting division

Autonomic Homeostasis

Autonomic homeostasis is the dynamic counteraction between the two divisions such that they balance each other during times when we are neither highly excited nor completed at rest

Divisions of ANS

In addition to the functional differences between the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions , there are also anatomical and biochemical differences

Divisions of ANS

The two divisions issue from different regions of the CNS The sympathetic can also be called the thoracolumbar division because its fibers emerge from the thoracic and lumbar parts of the spinal cord

Divisions of ANS

The parasympathetic division can also be termed the craniospinal division because its fibers emerge from the brain and spinal cord (sacral)

Comparison of ANS & PNS

A second difference between the two divisions is that sympathetic pathways have short preganglionic fibers and long post-ganglionic fibers

Comparison of ANS & PNS

Parasympathetic pathways in contrast have long pre-ganglionic fibers and short post-ganglionic fibers

Divisions of ANS

Therefore, all sympathetic ganglia lie near the spinal cord and vertebral column, and all parasympathetic ganglia lie far from the CNS, in or near the organs innervated

Divisions of ANS

The third anatomical difference between the two divisions is that sympathetic axons branch profusely, while parasympathetic fibers do not

Divisions of ANS

Extensive branching allows each sympathetic neuron to influence a number of different visceral organs, enabling many organs to mobilize simultaneously during the fight, flight or fright response Parasympathetic effects, by contrast are more localized and discrete

Divisions of ANS

The main biochemical difference between the two divisions involves the neurotransmitter release by the postganglionic axons

Divisions of ANS

In the sympathetic division, most postganglionic axons release norepinephine (also called noradrenaline) these fibers are termed adrenergic The postganglionic neurotransmitter in the parasympathetic division is acetycholine (Ach) these fibers are termed cholinergic The preganglionic axon terminals of both divisions always release acetylcholine

Divisions of ANS

The main anatomical and physiological differences between the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions are summarized in Table 15.1

Anatomy of ANS

The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions are distinguished by

Unique sites of origin Different lengths of their fibers Location of their ganglia

Anatomy of ANS

Unique origin sites

Parasympathetic fibers emerge from the brain and from the spinal cord at the sacral level Sympathetic fibers originate from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord

Anatomy of ANS

Different Lengths of their Fibers

Parasympathetic division has long preganglionic and short postganglionic fibers Sympathetic is the opposite with short preganglionic and long postganglionic fibers

Anatomy of ANS

Length of their Ganglia

Most parasympathetic ganglia are located in the visceral effector organs Sympathetic ganglia lie close to the spinal cord

Parasympathetic Division

The parasympathetic emerge from opposite ends of the central nervous system The preganglionic axons extend from the CNS nearly all the way to the structures to be innervated

Parasympathetic Division

The preganglionic neurons synapse with the ganglionic neurons located in terminal ganglia Very short post ganglionic axons issue from the terminal ganglia and synapse with effector cells in their immediate area

Parasympathetic Division

Several cranial nerves contain outflow of the parasympathetic Preganglionic fibers run in the oculomotor, facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerve

Cranial Outflow

Oculomotor nerve III

The parasympathetic fibers of the oculomotor nerves innervate smooth muscles of the eye
Constrictor muscles of iris cause pupil to constrict Ciliary muscle within the orbits of the eye controls lense shape for visual focusing Allow the eye to focus on close objects in the visual field

Cranial Outflow

Facial Nerves VII

The parasympathetic fibers of the facial nerves stimulate the secretory activity of many large glands of the head
The pathway activates the nasal glands and the lacrimal glands of the eyes The preganglionic fibers then run to synapse with ganglionic neurons in the pterygopalatine ganglia stimulating the submandibular and sublingual salivary glands

Cranial Outflow

Glossopharyngeal (IX)
The parasympathetic nerves originate in the medulla and activate the parotid salivary gland

Cranial Outflow

Vagus nerves (X)

The major portion of the parasympathetic cranial outflow is via the vagus nerves The two vagus nerves account for an estimated 90% of all preganglionic parasympathetic fibers in the body They provide fibers to the neck and contribute to nerve plexuses that serve virtually every organ in the thoracic and abdominal cavity

Cranial Outflow

The vagus nerve fibers arise from the dorsal motor of the medulla and terminate by synapsing in terminal ganglia that are usually located in the walls of the target organ

Cranial Outflow

Most of the terminal ganglia are not individually named; instead they are collectively called intramural ganglia, literally ganglia within the walls As the vagus nerves passes into the thorax, they send branches to autonomic plexuses
Cardiac plexuses Pulmonary plexuses Esophageal plexuses

Cranial Outflow

When the vagus nerves reach the esophagus, their fibers intermingle to form the anterior and posterior vagal trunks Each trunk carries fibers from both vargus nerves

Cranial Outflow

The vagal trunks ride the esophagus down to enter the abdominal cavity They send fibers to form the aortic plexuses (formed by the celiac, superior mesenteric and hypogastric)

Cranial Outflow

Abdominal organs which receive vagal innervation include the liver, gallbladder, stomach, small intestine, kidneys, pancreas, and the proximal half of the large intestine The rest of the cavity are innervated by the sacral outflow

Sacral Outflow

The sacral outflow arises from neurons located in the lateral horn of the spinal cord at S2 - S4 The axons of these neurons run in the ventral roots of the spinal nerves to the ventral rami

Sacral Outflow

From the ventral rami the neurons branch to form the pelvic splanchnic nerves Most neurons synapse in the intramural ganglia located in the walls of the distal large intestine, urinary bladder and reproductive organs

Sympathetic Division

The sympathetic division innervates more organs It supplies not only the visceral organs in the internal body cavities, but also the visceral structures in the superficial part of the body
Sweat glands Arrector pili Arteries and veins

Sympathetic Division

All preganglionic fibers in the sympathetic division arise from cell bodies of preganglionic neurons located in spinal cord segments from T1 through L2 It is also called the thoracolumbar

Sympathetic Division

After leaving the cord via the ventral root, the preganglionic sympathetic fibers pass through a white ramus communicans to enter the adjoining chain (paravertebral) ganglion forming part of the sympathetic trunk or chain

Sympathetic Division

The sympathetic trunks flank each side of the vertebral column and appear as strands of white beads

Sympathetic Division

Although the sympathetic trunks extend from the neck to the pelvis, sympathetic fibers arise only from the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord segments

Sympathetic Division

The ganglia vary in size, position, and number, but there are typically 23 ganglia in each sympathetic chain
3 cervical 11 thoracic 4 lumbar 4 sacral 1 coccygeal

Sympathetic Division

Once a preganglionic axon reaches a paravertebral ganglion one of three things can happen to it

Sympathetic Division

Once a preganglionic axon reaches a paravertebral ganglion one of three things can happen to it
1. It can synapse with a ganglionic neuron within the same chain ganglion

Sympathetic Division

Once a preganglionic axon reaches a paravertebral ganglion one of three things can happen to it
2. It can ascend or descend the sympathetic chain to synapse in another chain ganglion

Sympathetic Division

Once a preganglionic axon reaches a paravertebral ganglion one of three things can happen to it
3. It can pass through the chain ganglion and emerge from the sympathetic chain without synapsing

Sympathetic Division

Preganglionic fibers which emerge from the sympathetic chain without synapsing help to form the splanchnic nerves which synapse with prevertebral or collateral ganglia

Sympathetic Division

The prevertebral ganglia are located anterior to the vertebral column

Sympathetic Division

Unlike the paravertebral ganglia the prevertebral ganglia . . .

Are neither paired nor segmentally arranged They occur only in the abdomen and pelvis

Sympathetic Division

Note: Regardless of where the synapse occurs, all sympathetic ganglia lie close to the spinal cord The postganglionic fibers which run from the ganglion to the organs are typically much longer than the preganglionic fibers

Visceral Reflexes

The visceral sensory neurons are the first link in the autonomic reflexes These neurons send information concerning chemical changes, stretch, and irritation of the viscera

Visceral Reflexes

Visceral reflex arcs have essentially the same components as somatic reflex arcs
Receptor Sensory neuron Integration center Motor neuron Effector

Visceral Reflexes

Visceral reflex arcs differ in that they have a two-neuron chain

Visceral Reflexes

Nearly all sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers are accompanied by afferent fibers conducting sensory impulses from glands or muscular structures Thus, peripheral processes of visceral sensory neurons are found in cranial nerves, VII, IX, and X, the splanchnic nerves, and the sympathetic trunk, as well as the spinal nerves

Visceral Reflexes

Like sensory neurons serving somatic structures (skeletal muscles and skin) The cell bodies of visceral sensory neurons are located in the sensory ganglia of associated cranial nerves or in the dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord

Visceral Reflexes

Visceral sensory reflexes are also found within sympathetic ganglia where synapses with preganglionic neurons occur Complete three-neuron reflex arcs (sensory, motor, and intrinsic neurons) exist within the walls of the gastrointestinal tract
Enteric nervous system Controls gastrointestinal activity

Visceral Reflexes

The fact that visceral pain travels along the same pathways as somatic pain fibers helps to explain the phenomenon of referred pain in which pain stimuli arising in the viscera is perceived as somatic in origin

Visceral Reflexes

A heart attach may produce a sensation of pain that radiates to the superior thoracic wall and along the medial aspect of the left arm

Visceral Reflexes

Since the same spinal segments (T1T5) innervate both the heart and the regions to which pain signals from heart tissue are referred, the brain interprets most such inputs as coming from the somatic pathway

Visceral Reflexes

Additional cutaneous areas to which visceral pain is referred

Overview of the ANS

The autonomic nervous system differs in

Its effectors Its efferent pathways Its target organs

Effectors of ANS

The somatic nervous system stimulates skeletal muscles The ANS innervates cardiac and smooth muscles and glands