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History of DNA

History of DNA
Early scientists thought protein was the cells hereditary material because it was more complex than DNA Proteins were composed of 20 different amino acids in long polypeptide chains
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Transformation
Fred Griffith worked with virulent S and nonvirulent R strain Pneumoccocus bacteria He found that R strain could become virulent when it took in DNA from heat-killed S strain Study suggested that DNA was probably the genetic material
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Griffith Experiment

History of DNA
Chromosomes are made of both DNA and protein Experiments on bacteriophage viruses by Hershey & Chase proved that DNA was the cells genetic material

Radioactive 32P was injected into bacteria!

Discovery of DNA Structure

Erwin Chargaff showed the amounts of the four bases on DNA ( A,T,C,G) In a body or somatic cell: A = 30.3% T = 30.3% G = 19.5% C = 19.9%
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Chargaffs Rule
Adenine must pair with Thymine Guanine must pair with Cytosine The bases form weak hydrogen bonds

C
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DNA Structure
Rosalind Franklin took diffraction x-ray photographs of DNA crystals In the 1950s, Watson & Crick built the first model of DNA using Franklins x-rays

Rosalind Franklin

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DNA Structure

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DNA
Two strands coiled called a double helix Sides made of a pentose sugar Deoxyribose bonded to phosphate (PO4) groups by phosphodiester bonds Center made of nitrogen bases bonded together by weak hydrogen bonds
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DNA Double Helix

Rungs of ladder Nitrogenous Base (A,T,G or C)

Legs of ladder

Phosphate & Sugar Backbone

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Helix
Most DNA has a right-hand twist with 10 base pairs in a complete turn Left twisted DNA is called Z-DNA or southpaw DNA Hot spots occur where right and left twisted DNA meet producing mutations
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DNA
Stands for Deoxyribonucleic acid Made up of subunits called nucleotides Nucleotide made of: 1. Phosphate group 2. 5-carbon sugar 3. Nitrogenous base
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DNA Nucleotide
Phosphate Group O
5

O=P-O O

CH2 O N

C4
Sugar (deoxyribose)

C1

Nitrogenous base (A, G, C, or T)

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C3

C2

Pentose Sugar
Carbons are numbered clockwise 1 to 5 5
CH2
O C1

C4
Sugar (deoxyribose)

C3

C2
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DNA
O
3

P
5 4

O
O

G
2

C
1

4
3

P
5

T
O

A
O

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Antiparallel Strands
One strand of DNA goes from 5 to 3 (sugars) The other strand is opposite in direction going 3 to 5 (sugars)

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Nitrogenous Bases
Double ring PURINES Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Single ring PYRIMIDINES Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) T or C
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A or G

Base-Pairings
Purines only pair with Pyrimidines Three hydrogen bonds required to bond Guanine & Cytosine
3 H-bonds

C
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Two hydrogen bonds are required to bond Adenine & Thymine

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Bonding 1 The bases always pair up in the same way

Adenine forms a bond with Thymine

Adenine

Thymine

and Cytosine bonds with Guanine

Guanine

Cytosine

Bonding 2
PO4
adenine thymine

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PO4

PO4 PO4
cytosine guanine

PO4 PO4

PO4

PO4

Pairing up
PO4

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PO4 PO4
PO4

PO4

PO4

PO4

PO4

PO4
PO4

PO4
PO4

PO4 PO4 PO4

PO4

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The paired strands are coiled into a spiral called

A DOUBLE HELIX

THE DOUBLE HELIX

bases

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sugar-phosphate chain

replication Before a cell divides, the DNA strands unwind and separate

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Each strand makes a new partner by adding the appropriate nucleotides

The result is that there are now two double-stranded DNA molecules in the nucleus So that when the cell divides, each nucleus contains identical DNA

This process is called replication

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PO4

The strands separate

PO4

PO4

PO4

PO4

PO4

PO4

PO4

PO4
PO4

PO4
PO4

PO4

PO4
PO4
PO4

Each strand builds up its partner by adding the appropriate nucleotides

PO4 PO4 PO4 PO4 PO4 PO4 PO4 PO4 PO4 PO4
PO4

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PO4 PO4

PO4

PO4 PO4
PO4

PO4 PO4

PO4
PO4 PO4

PO4 PO4

PO4 PO4

PO4

PO4
PO4

PO4
PO4

PO4

Genetic code 1 The sequence of bases in DNA forms the Genetic Code

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A group of three bases (a triplet) controls the production of a particular amino acid in the cytoplasm of the cell

The different amino acids and the order in which they are joined up determines the sort of protein being produced

Genetic code 2

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This is a small, imaginary protein molecule showing how a sequence of 5 different amino acids could determine the shape and identity of the molecule
Ser-Cyst-Val-Gly-Ser-Cyst Ala Val

Val-Cyst-Ser-Ala-Ser-Cyst-Gly
Val- Cyst-Ala-Ala-Ser-Gly

Each amino acid (Serine, Cysteine, Valine, Glycine and Alanine) is coded for by a particular triplet of bases

Coding For example Cytosine

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Adenine

Codes for

Valine

Thymine Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) Adenine (A)

Codes for

Alanine

Triplet code This is known as the triplet code Each triplet codes for a specific amino acid

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CGA - CAA - CCA - CCA - GCT - GGG - GAG - CCA Ala Val Gly Gly Arg Pro Leu Gly

The amino acids are joined together in the correct sequence to make part of a protein Ala Val Gly Gly Arg Pro Leu Gly

DNA and enzymes The proteins build the cell structures

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They also make enzymes

The DNA controls which enzymes are made and the enzymes determine what reactions take place

The structures and reactions in the cell determine what sort of a cell it is and what its function is So DNA exerts its control through the enzymes

Question:
If there is 30% Adenine, how much Cytosine is present?

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Answer:
There would be 20% Cytosine
Adenine (30%) = Thymine (30%) Guanine (20%) = Cytosine (20%) Therefore, 60% A-T and 40% C-G

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DNA Replication

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Replication Facts
DNA has to be copied before a cell divides DNA is copied during the S or synthesis phase of interphase New cells will need identical DNA strands
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Synthesis Phase (S phase)

S phase during interphase of the cell cycle Nucleus of eukaryotes

S
DNA replication takes place in the S phase. phase

G1

interphase

G2

Mitosis
-prophase -metaphase -anaphase -telophase

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DNA Replication
Begins at Origins of Replication Two strands open forming Replication Forks (Y-shaped region) New strands grow at the forks

5 Parental DNA Molecule

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Replication Fork
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DNA Replication
As the 2 DNA strands open at the origin, Replication Bubbles form Prokaryotes (bacteria) have a single bubble Eukaryotic chromosomes have MANY bubbles
Bubbles Bubbles

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DNA Replication
Enzyme Helicase unwinds and separates the 2 DNA strands by breaking the weak hydrogen bonds Single-Strand Binding Proteins attach and keep the 2 DNA strands separated and untwisted
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DNA Replication
Enzyme Topoisomerase attaches to the 2 forks of the bubble to relieve stress on the DNA molecule as it separates
Enzyme Enzyme

DNA
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DNA Replication
Before new DNA strands can form, there must be RNA primers present to start the addition of new nucleotides Primase is the enzyme that synthesizes the RNA Primer DNA polymerase can then add the new nucleotides
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DNA Replication
DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides to the 3 end of the DNA This causes the NEW strand to be built in a 5 to 3 direction
5
RNA Primer

3 5

Nucleotide

DNA Polymerase

Direction of Replication

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Remember HOW the Carbons Are Numbered!

Phosphate Group

O O=P-O O

CH2

O
N C4 C1
Nitrogenous base (A, G, C, or T)

Sugar (deoxyribose)

C3

C2

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Remember the Strands are Antiparallel O

3

P
5 4

O
O

G
2

C
1

4
3

P
5

T
O

A
O

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Synthesis of the New DNA Strands

The Leading Strand is synthesized as a single strand from the point of origin toward the opening replication fork
5
RNA Primer
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5
Nucleotides

DNA Polymerase

Synthesis of the New DNA Strands

The Lagging Strand is synthesized discontinuously against overall direction of replication This strand is made in MANY short segments It is replicated from the replication fork toward the origin

5
3 5 3
Lagging Strand

Leading Strand

3
5 3
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DNA Polymerase

RNA Primer

Lagging Strand Segments

Okazaki Fragments - series of short segments on the lagging strand Must be joined together by an enzyme
Okazaki Fragment RNA Primer DNA Polymerase

5
3
Lagging Strand

3
5
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Joining of Okazaki Fragments

The enzyme Ligase joins the Okazaki fragments together to make one strand
DNA ligase
Okazaki Fragment 1 Okazaki Fragment 2

Lagging Strand

5
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Replication of Strands
Replication Fork Point of Origin

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Proofreading New DNA

DNA polymerase initially makes about 1 in 10,000 base pairing errors Enzymes proofread and correct these mistakes The new error rate for DNA that has been proofread is 1 in 1 billion base pairing errors
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Semiconservative Model of Replication

Idea presented by Watson & Crick The two strands of the parental molecule separate, and each acts as a template for a new complementary strand

New DNA consists of 1 PARENTAL (original) and 1 NEW strand of DNA

DNA Template Parental DNA New DNA
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DNA Damage & Repair

Chemicals & ultraviolet radiation damage the DNA in our body cells Cells must continuously repair DAMAGED DNA Excision repair occurs when any of over 50 repair enzymes remove damaged parts of DNA DNA polymerase and DNA ligase replace and bond the new nucleotides together
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Question:
What would be the complementary DNA strand for the following DNA sequence?

DNA 5-CGTATG-3
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Answer:
DNA 5-CGTATG-3 DNA 3-GCATAC-5

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