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Crust
outermost layer Thickness nearly 40 kM at
Mantle
Thicker and denser layer below Major contents are Silicates and Metals The temp. at lower part is about 22000C
Core
Central part Classified into outer and inner cores Outer is molten and at around 50000C Inner part is thought to be solid
Crust is naturally got partitioned Partitions are called tectonic plates Plates move vary slowly under the forces from interior of earth Vertical-continent building-epeirogenic Horizontal-mountain building-orogenic-cause synclines & anticlines leads to faulting of rocks
Anticline
Syncline
Earthquake are caused by abrupt motions and rupture of rocks separated by a geological fault. Sudden release of accumulated strain energy generate vibrations that can be felt, and, if sufficiently strong, can cause damage to houses.
begins with a sudden noise, or roar, and is followed by vibrations or a swaying sensation. vertical movement (up and down) and horizontal movements (side to side) are caused Horizontal movements generate more damage. vibrations can last for mere seconds or for several minutes, depending on the size of the earthquake and the distance from the epicenter
1.
1.
In a reverse fault, the block above the fault moves up relative to the block below the fault. This fault motion is caused by compressional forces and results in shortening. A reverse fault is called a thrust fault if the dip of the fault plane is small. [Other names: thrust fault, reverse-slip fault or compressional fault]
2. STRIKE-SLIP FAULT
In a strike-slip fault, the movement of blocks along a fault is horizontal. If the block on the far side of the fault moves to the left, as shown in this animation, the fault is called left-lateral. If the block on the far side moves to the right, the fault is called right-lateral. The fault motion of a strike-slip fault is caused by shearing forces. [Other names: transcurrent fault, lateral fault, tear fault or wrench fault]
3. OBLIQUE-SLIP FAULT
Oblique-slip faulting suggests both dip-slip faulting and strike-slip faulting. It is caused by a combination of shearing and tension of compressional forces.
that the first seismic waves originated. Epicenter Vertical projection of the focus on the earth's surface. Magnitude a measure of the energy released during an earthquake. calculated using an equation proposed by Charles F. Richter in 1958. An earthquake of magnitude greater than 8 (M8) represents a very severe earthquake.
a geophysical event
measured in magnitude of energy released and in duration
scale of human event is not always proportional to that of the seismic event
casualties and property damage depend upon
population density type of structures type of construction stability of geologic foundations time of occurrence magnitude, duration and focal distance of the earthquake.
Engineering Seismograph
Mini Seismograph
Logarithm to the base 10 of the maximum amplitude of ground motion as recorded in mm at a distance of 100kM from the epicenter on a Wood Anderson type Torsion Seismograph having 80% of critical damping, natural period of 0.8 seconds and magnification 2800.
measure of the degree of damage caused by an earthquake at a given place Scale varies from I to XII Another intensity scale
64)
all intensity scales are subjective, that is, qualitative. There is absolutely no correlation between magnitude and intensity of an earthquake
Magnitude of the event Mechanism at source Characteristics of travel path of shock waves Local soil conditions Topography of the site
How to reduce the extensive loss of life and property caused by earthquakes? adopt and implement
improved design siting construction procedures
Closely
system
Masonry walls with timber floors or tiled roofs Masonry walls with RCC floors or roof for single and multiple stories RCC framed structure with infill masonry walls RCC shear wall construction Steel frames with infill wall
NON-ENGINEERED CONSTRUCTION
Random Rubble Stone Masonry in Mud
Mortar
Un-reinforced Brick Masonry
SEMI-ENGINEERED CONSTRUCTION
Reinforced Brick Masonry
ENGINEERED CONSTRUCTION
Reinforced Concrete Framed Structures / Steel Structures
Provide frequent buttresses and pilasters at corners Roof and Lintel bands, corner bands
Separation and bulging of the two leaves of stone walls due to absence of bond stones stone rotation
Diagonal cracks through masonry units, Overturning of walls due to out of plane inertia forces,
Un-reinforced gable end masonry walls are unstable and the strutting action of purlins imposes additional force.
(c)Diagonal cracking
FAILURE OF MASONRY
AHEMADABAD AHEMADABAD
TURKEY
Sliding of trusses, falling off of beams, floors etc. Instability of trusses, gables etc. Shear wall with openings one above another Falling off of roof tiles, chajjas etc. Arch thrust Low quality material and workmanship (mortar 1:6)
Limit wall dimensions; width < 40t, height < 20t, t > 200 mm Limit opening size and location, reinforce opening Avoid toothed joint in one wall Provide horizontal and vertical reinforcement bands,corner Reinforce gables or use light sheeting
Vertical Reinforcement
Horizontal Bands
vertical and horizontal steel bars are set into brickwork as the bricks are laid.
Diagonal cracks through masonry units Vertical cracks in walls due to plate bending action Failure of wall connections Failure of short brick columns
Soft story failure Shear failure of column compression failure pullout failure of smooth main bars Weak axis failure of columns due to orientation problems Column hinging at beam-column junctions
Severely damaged reinforced concrete building with shear walls at Sannomiya Station, central Kobe. The building consists of a relatively simple (structurally and architecturally) upper portion on top of a complex lower portion
Supposed to be the best for lateral resistance as well for adequate ductility. Welded structures might be affected due to breaking at welds in welded-flange moment connections
interfaces Cracks in fillet welds at shear connection plates Cracks in beam shear connection plates along the bolt line or in the plate at the end of the fillet welds
Steel buildings in the Nagata Ward. While the frames appear to be in good shape, the cladding was shaken off the building, posing a severe life-safety hazard.
ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
CONFIGURATION - Size, Shape, Location of Structural Elements, Non-structural Elements REGULARITY - Uniform Distribution of Mass & Stiffness ENVIRONMENT - Foundation, Adjacent Buld., Site
Response in Elevation: Building as a Vertical Cantilever Response in Plan : Centre of Mass & Rigidity
2) Un-symmetry - Avoid
ELEVATION IRREGULARITIES
1) Soft-Storey/Pan-caked
2) Set-backs
3) Connections
ELEVATION IRREGULARITIES
4) Pounding
6) Staggered Levels
7) In-fills
reinforced concrete building in Sannomiya. Much of the damage is concentrated at structural discontinuities Kobe
L L Forces in VLLR proportional to their stiffness (diaf) << (VLLR) H>>L Rigid body rotation Cast-in-place concrete Precast+topping,
Forces in VLLR as in simple beam supports (diaf) >> (VLLR) H << L No rigid body rotation Ply-wood floor Precast
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
A structure possess minimum strength to withstand minor earthquakes, which occur frequently, with some non-structural damage,
Resist moderate earthquakes, which occur once in twenty five years or so, with minor structural damage and some non structural damage and, Withstand a major earthquake, which is likely to occur once in a life time of the structure, without complete collapse.
shear walls, made of reinforced concrete, strengthen the structure and help resist rocking forces. Shear walls in the center of a building form a shear core. Crossbracing reinforces walls with diagonal steel beams. Base isolators act as shock absorbers, and a moat allows a building to sway.
Severely damaged steel-frame building in Sannomiya. This building illustrates the practice of bracing multiple bays
steel-truss elements forming a moment frame for the lateral-loadresisting structural system.
Detail of the truss elements Note the minimal damage to the concrete units. This photo shows the intersection of the vertical and horizontal frames
steel construction in Japan result in structures with higher degrees of redundancy than in the United States
Dampers
These three-year-old wooden houses collapsed from excessive loads imposed by heavy tile roofs.
A similar wooden house on the block with a lightweight roof had minimal damage
A Replace unreinforced masonry or deteriorating concrete foundations with RCC. B Add concrete foundations under walls that lack support. C Add a steel frame or plywood panels to both sides of garage door and window openings. Secure frame to foundation with anchor bolts.