The Endocrine System

Controls many body functions

exerts control by releasing special chemical substances into the blood called hormones Hormones affect other endocrine glands or body systems

Derives its name from the fact that various glands release hormones directly into the blood, which in turn transports the hormones to target tissues via ducts.

The Endocrine System

Exocrine glands transport their hormones to target tissues via ducts. Endocrine Emergencies:
from common: Diabetes to the unusual: Thyrotoxicosis

The Endocrine System

Consists of several glands located in various parts of the body.
Pituitary gland: a small gland located on a stalk hanging from the base of the brain - AKA The Master Gland Primary function is to control other glands. Produces many hormones. Secretion is controlled by the hypothalamus in the base of the brain.

The Endocrine System

The Pituitary Gland is divided into 2 areas, which differ structurally and functionally each area has separate types of hormone production.
The two segments are: Posterior Pituitary: produces oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Anterior Pituitary: produces thyroidstimulating hormone (TSH) growth hormone (GH) adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

The Endocrine System

And even more
luteinizing hormone (LH) prolactin Posterior Pituitary Oxytocin (the natural form of pitocin) stimulates gravid uterus causes let down of milk from the breast. ADH (vasopressin) causes the kidney to retain water.

Lets go over these one at a time...

The Endocrine System

Anterior Pituitary Primarily regulates other endocrine glands rarely a factor in endocrinological emergencies TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to release its hormones, thus metabolic rate Anterior Pituitary Growth hormone (GH) glucose usage consumption of fats as an energy source ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to release its hormones FSH & LH stimulates maturation & release of eggs from ovary.

The Endocrine System

The Thyroid Gland
lies in the anterior neck just below the larynyx. Two lobes, located on either side of the trachea, connected by a narrow band of tissue called the isthmus. Sacs inside the gland contain colloid Within the colloid are the thyroid hormones: thyroxine (T4) triiodothyronine (T3) When stimulated (by TSH or by cold), these are released into the circulatory system and the metabolic rate. C cells within the thyroid produce the hormone calcitonin.

The Endocrine System

Calcitonin, when released, lowers the amount of calcium in the blood. Inadequate levels of thyroid hormones = hypothyroidism, or Myxedema.
Myxedema symptoms: Facial bloating weakness cold intolerance lethargy altered mental status oily skin and hair TX: replacement of thyroid hormone.

The Endocrine System

Increased thyroid hormone release causes hyperthyroidism, commonly called Graves disease. Signs and symptoms: insomnia, fatigue tachycardia hypertension heat intolerance weight loss Long term hyperthyroidism: Exopthalmos bulging of the eyeballs (picture Barbara Bush) In severe cases - a medical emergency called thyrotoxicosis can result.

The Endocrine System

Parathyroid Glands
small, pea-shaped glands, located in the neck near the thyroid usually 4 - number can vary regulate the level of calcium in the body produce parathyroid hormone - level of calcium in blood Hypocalcemia can result if parathyroids are removed or destroyed.

The Endocrine System

Pancreas
a key gland located in the folds of the duodenum has both endocrine and exocrine functions secretes several key digestive enzymes

Islets of Langerhans
specialized tissues in which the endocrine functions of the pancreas occurs include 3 types of cells:
alpha ( ) beta () delta ()

each secretes an important hormone.

The Endocrine System

Alpha () cells release glucagon, essential for controlling blood glucose levels. When blood glucose levels fall, cells the amount of glucagon in the blood . The surge of glucagon stimulates the liver to release glucose stores (from glycogen and additional storage sites). Also, glucagon stimulates the liver to manufacture glucose gluconeogenesis.

The Endocrine System

Beta Cells () release insulin (antagonistic to glucagon). Insulin the rate at which various body cells take up glucose. Thus, insulin lowers the blood glucose level. Insulin is rapidly broken down by the liver and must be secreted constantly. Delta Cells () produce somatostatin, which inhibits both glucagon and insulin.

The Endocrine System

Adrenal Glands
2 small glands that sit atop both kidneys. Each has 2 divisions, each with different functions.

the Adrenal Medulla secretes the catecholamine hormones norepinephrine and epinephrine (closely related to the sympathetic component of the autonomic nervous system).

The Endocrine System

One at a time The Adrenal Cortex secretes 3 classes of hormones, all steroid hormones:
gluticocorticoids mineralocorticoids androgenic hormones gluticocorticoids: accounts for 95% of adrenal cortex hormone production the level of glucose in the blood Released in response to stress, injury, or serious infection - like the hormones from the adrenal medulla.

The Endocrine System

Mineralocorticoids:
work to regulate the concentration of potassium and sodium in the body.

Signs & Symptoms of Cushings Disease:

in blood sugar levels unusual body fat distribution rapid mood swings

Prolonged in adrenal cortex hormone results in Cushings Disease.

The Endocrine System

And - if there is an in mineralocorticoids as well
A serious electolyte imbalance will occur due to the potassium excretion by the kidney, which results in hypokalemia.

Sodium can also be retained by the kidney, resulting in hyponatremia.

Causes:
dysrhythmias coma death

usually results from a tumor - TX? Removal of tumor.

The Endocrine System

Gonads and Ovaries:
the endocrine glands associated with human reproduction. Female ovaries produce eggs Male gonads produce sperm

Ovaries:
located in the abdominal cavity adjacent to the uterus. Under the control of LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary they manufacture
estrogen protesterone

both have endocrine functions.

The Endocrine System

Estrogen and Progesterone have several functions, including sexual development and preparation of the uterus for implantation of the egg. Testes:
located in the scrotum produce sperm for reproduction manufacture testosterone promotes male growth and masculinization

Controlled by anterior pituitary hormones FSH and LH.

The Endocrine System

Endocrine Emergencies: Diabetes Mellitus
one of the most common diseases in North America. insulin secretion by the Beta () cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.

Complications of Diabetes:
contributes to heart disease stroke kidney disease blindness

The Endocrine System

Pathophysiology of Diabetes: Glucose Metabolism
Glucose (dextrose) is a simple sugar required by the body to produce energy. Sugars, or carbohydrates, are 1 of 3 major food sources used by the body.

The other 2 major food sources are

proteins fats

Most sugars in the human diet are complex and must be broken down into simple sugars: glucose, galactose and fructose - before use.

The Endocrine System

Breakdown of sugars is carried out by enzymes in the gastro intestinal system.
As simple sugars, these are absorbed from the GE system into the body. More than 95% enter the body as glucose.

To be converted into energy, glucose must first be transmitted through the cell membrane. BUT - the glucose molecule is large and doesnt readily diffuse through the cell membrane.

The Endocrine System

Glucose must pass into the cell by binding to a special carrier protein on the cells surface.
Facilitated diffusion doesnt use energy. The carrier protein binds with the glucose and carries it into the cell.

The rate at which glucose can enter the cell is dependent upon insulin levels.
Insulin serves as the messenger - travels via blood to target tissues. Combines with specific insulin receptors on the surface of the cell membrane.

 Composed of widely distributed ductless glands Such glands pour their secretions ( hormones ) into the blood, instead of into the original epithelium from which they originate The glands of the endocrine system do not form an anatomic system of continuity, rather, form a system only from a functional standpoint

Hormones
Secretory products formed by the endocrine glands Specific organic substances, manufactured under physiologic conditions and carried by the blood to various parts of the body to perform their particular functions Hormones are chemical messengers created by the body. They transfer information from one set of

Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is located in the lower central part of the brain. This part of the brain is important in regulation of satiety, metabolism, and body temperature. In addition, it secretes hormones that stimulate or suppress the release of hormones in the pituitary gland.

 Many of these hormones are releasing hormones, which are secreted into an artery (the hypophyseal portal system) that carries them directly to the pituitary gland. In the pituitary gland, these releasing hormones signal secretion of stimulating hormones. The hypothalamus also secretes a hormone called somatostatin, which causes the pituitary gland to stop the release of growth

Endocrine Organs
1. Pituitary glands 2. Pineal glands 3. Thyroid glands 4. Parathyroid glands 5. Adrenal / Suprarenal glands 6. Pancreas 7. Testes 8. Ovaries

 Growth hormone - Stimulates growth of bone and tissue (growth hormone deficiency in children results in growth failure. Growth hormone deficiency in adults results in problems in maintaining proper amounts of body fat and muscle and bone mass. It is also involved in emotional wellbeing.)

 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones (A lack of thyroid hormones either because of a defect in the pituitary or the thyroid itself is called hypothyroidism.)

 Adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) Stimulates the adrenal gland to produce several related steroid hormones Luteinizing hormone (LH) and folliclestimulating hormone (FSH) - Hormones that control sexual function and production of the sex steroids, estrogen and progesterone in females or testosterone in males

 Prolactin - Hormone that stimulates milk production in females The posterior lobe produces the following hormones, which are not regulated by the hypothalamus: Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin) Controls water loss by the kidneys Oxytocin - Contracts the uterus during childbirth and stimulates milk production The hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary are actually produced in the brain and carried to the pituitary gland through

 Oxytocin - Contracts the uterus during childbirth and stimulates milk production The hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary are actually produced in the brain and carried to the pituitary gland through nerves. They are stored in the pituitary gland.

Pineal Gland
Epiphysis cerebri Located at the caudal portion of the thalamus Produces melatonin which may help regulate the wake-sleep cycle of the body.

Two Layers of Adrenal Glands

1. Adrenal cortex outer layer - produces aldosterone, cortisol and sex hormones

2. Adrenal medulla inner layer - produces epinephrine and norepinephrine

Pancreas

 The pancreas is an elongated organ located toward the back of the abdomen behind the stomach. The pancreas has digestive and hormonal functions. One part of the pancreas, the exocrine pancreas, secretes digestive enzymes.

Male Reproductive Organs-2ndary Characteristics

Male Reproductive organs

In a guy who has reached sexual maturity, the two testicles, or testes, produce and store millions of tiny sperm cells. The testicles are oval-shaped and grow to be about 2 inches (5 centimeters) in length and 1 inch (3 centimeters) in diameter. The testicles are also part of the endocrine system because they produce hormones, including testosterone.

 Testosterone is a major part of puberty in boys, and as a guy makes his way through puberty, his testicles produce more and more of it. Testosterone is the hormone that causes boys to develop deeper voices, bigger muscles, and body and facial hair, and it also stimulates the production of sperm.

 The other part of the pancreas, the endocrine pancreas, secretes hormones called insulin and glucagon. These hormones regulate the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood.

Female Reproductive Organs

 What Does the Female Reproductive System Do?

The female reproductive system enables a woman to: produce eggs (ova) have sexual intercourse protect and nourish the fertilized egg until it is fully developed give birth Produces the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone

 In females, the ovaries, located on both sides of the uterus, produce estrogen and progesterone as well as eggs. These hormones control the development of female characteristics (for example, breast growth), and they are also involved in reproductive functions (for example, menstruation, pregnancy).

 Thank you for listening and Godbless!