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History 311
The Enlightenment
In the eighteenth century, a daring and dramatically new intellectual and cultural movement arose in western Europe. Of its many characteristics audacity, wit, an interest in the practical and the applied none was more important than its critical, biting edge. This opinionated movement called for enlightenment for new thinking about once unquestioned truths and eventually for new actions. Best characterized by the metaphor of light, the Enlightenment has retrained the name it acquired early in the eighteenth century. (Jacob, p. 1)
Defining Characteristics
Anti-clerical and anti-authoritarian Emphasis upon Education Equality before the Law Cultural Relativism Theory of Progress
Newtonian Worldview
One universal, mathematical law explains all motion in universe
Principia, 1687
Denies Innate Ideas Tabula rasa Sensation Reflection Lockean Epistemology Does for Human Mind What Newton Does for Universe
John Locke
1632-1704
John Locke
1632-1704
Laissez-faire liberalism in religion and politics Limitations of the human mind Political Dualism Civil & Ecclesiastical Realms
Conclusions
The Crisis of the European Mind and the Debate Over Religious Toleration
Blaise Pascal,1623-1662
Child Prodigy and Mathematical Genius Work on Conic Sections & Probability Theory Scientific Work on Barometer 1654 Mystical Experience
Control of Military
1721-1795 Under the Direction of his Father, the Chancellor, Malesherbes was official censor of the press during Reign of Louis XV
Mathematician & Philosopher Co-Editor of Encyclopedia Project with Diderot Author of the Preliminary
1717-1783
17 volumes of articles,
Frontispiece to Encyclopedia
Symbolism of the Bright Light of Truth Reason and Philosophy remove the Veil
Frontispiece to Encyclopedia
Symbolism of the Bright Light of Truth Reason and Philosophy remove the Veil
Madame de Tencin
Julie de Lespinasse
Marie du Deffand
Voltaire
1694-1778 Personification of the Enlightenment Poet, novelist, playwright, essayist Letters Concerning the English Nation, 1733
Candide, 1759
Philosophical Dictionary, 1764
Voltaire
1694-1778
English Visit 1726 (Rohan Affair) Letters Concerning the English Nation, 1733
Voltaire
1694-1778
English Visit 1726 (Rohan Affair) Letters Concerning the English Nation, 1733
Theodicy, 1710
Voltaire
1694-1778
Berlin Period (1750-1753) Geneva/Ferney Period (1755-
1778)
Ecrasez linfame
Triumphal Return to Paris, 1778
Founder of Romanticism?
Contributions to Political Theory, Educational Theory & Literature Early Life Born in Geneva Aimless Early Life Arrives in Paris 1742 Confessions (circa 1770s)
Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, 1751 Discourse on Inequality, 1755 The Social Contract, 1762
All ran headlong to their chains, in hopes of securing their liberty; for they had just wit enough to perceive the advantages of political institutions, without experience enough to enable them to foresee the dangers.
Man is naturally goodin the state of nature. Property and greed create distinctions and create the need for the state and law
The Nature of the Social Compact The problem is to find a form of association which will defend and protect with the whole common force the person and goods of each associate, and in which each, while uniting himself with all, may still obey himself alone, and remain as free as before. This is the fundamental problem of which the social contract provides the solution. Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will, and, in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.
The Nature of the Social Compact In order then that the social compact may not be an empty formula, it tacitly includes the undertakings, which alone can give force to the rest, that whoever refuses to obey the general will shall be compelled to do so by the whole body. This means nothing less than that he will be forced to be free . (Kramnick, p, 435) There is often a great deal of difference between the will of all and the general will; the latter considers only the common interest, while the former takes private interest into account, and is no more than a sum of particular wills... (Kramnick, p, 437)
The Nature of the Social Compact As soon as public service ceases to be the chief business of the citizens and they would rather serve with their money than with their persons, the State is not far from its fall. When it is necessary to march out to war, they pay troops and stay at home: when it is necessary to meet in council, they name deputies and stay at home. By reason of idleness and money, they end by having soldiers to enslave their country and representatives to sell it.
Good laws lead to the making of better ones; bad ones bring about worse. As soon as any man says of the affairs of the State, What does it matter to me?, the State may be given up for lost. The General Will
Emile
De lesprit, 1758 A Treatise on Man; his Intellectual Faculties and his Education, 1772
Radical Empiricist and Determinist Human behavior completely determined by education and social environment. We seek to maximize pleasure and minimize painanticipates the Claude Adrien Helvetius British Utilitarians (1715-1771)
Defining Characteristics
Anti-clerical and anti-authoritarian Emphasis upon Education Equality before the Law Cultural Relativism Theory of Progress
Intellectual Assumptions of Liberal DemocracyWhat was the real impact of ideas in the Ancien Regime?
The Enlightenment was an Ancien Regime phenomenon. The Revolution transformed it by wrenching it, like so much else, into a new and different shape. --William Doyle
Noted Mathematician & Scientist Systematically Applied Mathematics to the social sciences Advocate for Human Rights, including rights for women and blacks Directly involved in the French Revolution
Theory of Progress
Marquis de Condorcet 1743-1794
Olympe de Gouges
1745-1793
When , in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of earth the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and natures God entitle them
We hold these truths to be selfevident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness.
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized
No person shall be held to answer for any capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.
POLITICAL LIBERALISM
1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.
2. The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.
POLITICAL LIBERALISM
3. The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No body nor individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation.
4. Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything which injures no one else; hence the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits except those which assure to the other members of the society the enjoyment of the same rights. These limits can only be determined by law.
POLITICAL LIBERALISM
5. Law can only prohibit such actions as are hurtful to society. Nothing may be prevented which is not forbidden by law, and no one may be forced to do anything not provided for by law. 6. Law is the expression of the general will. Every citizen has a right to participate personally, or through his representative, in its foundation. It must be the same for all, whether it protects or punishes. All citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally eligible to all dignities and to all public positions and occupations, according to their abilities, and without distinction except that of their virtues and talents.
POLITICAL LIBERALISM
10. No one shall be disquieted on account of his opinions, including his religious views, provided their manifestation does not disturb the public order established by law. 11. The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law.
LIBERALISM
Political
Liberalism Liberalism
Economic Social
Liberalism