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DETAIL
DESIGN

A vast subject. We will concentrate on:

Materials Selection

Process Selection

Cost Breakdown

Materials Selection with Shape
FUNCTION
MATERIAL
PROCESS
SHAPE
SHAPES FOR TENSION,
BENDING, TORSION,
BUCKLING
--------------------
SHAPE FACTORS
--------------------
PERFORMANCE INDICES
WITH SHAPE
Common Modes of Loading
Moments of Sections: Elastic
Section
Shape
A
(m
2
)
I
(m
4
)
K
(m
4
)
2
r t
4
4
r
t
4
2
r
t
2
b
12
4
b
4
14 . 0 b
ab t b a
3
4
t
) (
2 2
3 3
b a
b a
+
t
bh
12
3
bh
) (
58 . 0 1
3
3
b h
h
b h b
>
|
.
|

\
|

2
4
3
a
3 32
4
a
80
3
4
a
rt
r r
i o
t
t
2
) (
2 2
~

t r
r r
i o
3
4 4
) (
4
t
t
~

t r
r r
i o
3
4 4
2
) (
2
t
t
~

A = Cross-sectional area
I = Second moment of area
} }
= =
tion
y
tion
y b y A y I
sec
2
sec
2
d d
where y is measured vertically
b
y
is the section width at y
K = Resistance to twisting of section
( Polar moment J of a circular section)
( )
}
=
tion
r r J
sec
3
d 2t
G
TL
K
u
=
where T is the torque
L is the length of the shaft
is the angle of twist
G is the shear modulus
Moments of Sections: Elastic
bt 4
t b a ) ( + t
bt
h h b
i o
2
) (
~

) ( 2 b h t +
) ( 2 b h t +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
2
2 2
4
1

d
t
t b
3
3
2
|
.
|

\
|
+
a
b
t a
3
1
4
3
t
2 /
) (
12
2
3 3
o
i o
bth
h h
b
~

|
.
|

\
|
+
h
b
t h
3
1
6
1
3
) 4 (
6
2 3
bt h
t
+
8
2
d t
4
3
1 |
.
|

\
|

b
t
t b
2 2
2 / 5
) ( 4
b a
t ab
+
t
b h
h tb
+
~
2 2
2
|
.
|

\
|
+
b
h
bt
4
1
3
2
3
) 8 (
3
3
h b
t
+ |
.
|

\
|
+
h
b
ht
4
1
3
2
3
Section
Shape
A
(m
2
)
I
(m
4
)
K
(m
4
)
Moments of Sections: Failure
Section
Shape
Z
(m
3
)
Q
(m
3
)
3
4
r
t
3
2
r
t
6
3
b
3
21 . 0 b
b a
2
4
t
) (
2
2
b a
b a
<
t
6
2
bh
) (
8 . 1 3
2 2
b h
b h
h b
>
+
32
3
a
20
3
a
t r
r r
r
i o
o
2
4 4
) (
4
t
t
~

t r
r r
r
i o
o
2
4 4
2
) (
2
t
t
~

Z = Section modulus
m
y
I
Z =
where
y
m
is the normal distance from the neutral axis
to the outer surface of the beam carrying the
highest stress
Q = Factor in twisting similar to Z
t
T
Q =
where
t is the maximum surface shear stress
Moments of Sections: Failure
Section
Shape
Z
(m
3
)
Q
(m
3
)
t b
2
3
4
2
2
1 2 |
.
|

\
|

b
t
t b
|
.
|

\
|
+
a
b t a 3
1
4
2
t
) (
) ( 2
2 / 1 3
a b
b a t
>
t
( )
o
i o
o
bth
h h
h
b
~

3 3
6
|
.
|

\
|
+
h
b t h 3
1
3
2
tbh 2 |
.
|

\
|
+
b
h
bt
4
1
3
2
2
) 4 (
3
2 3
bt h
h
t
+
) 8 (
3
2
h b
t
+ |
.
|

\
|
+
h
b
ht
4
1
3
2
2
4
d t
Shape Factors: Elastic
BENDING
3
1
L
EI C
S
B
=
t
t
4 4
2
4
A
r I
o
= =
Bending stiffness of a beam
where C
1
is a constant depending on the
loading details, L is the length of the beam,
and E is the Youngs modulus of the material
o Bo
B
e
B
I
I
S
S
= = |
Define structure factor as the ratio of the
stiffness of the shaped beam to that of a
solid circular section with the same cross-
sectional area thus:
2
4
A
I
e
B
t
| =
so,
TORSION
L
KG
S
T
= Torsional stiffness of a beam
where L is the length of the shaft, G is the
shear Modulus of the material.
t
t
2 2
2
4
A
r K
o
= =
2
2
A
K
e
T
t
| =
so,
o To
T
e
T
K
K
S
S
= = |
Define structure factor as the ratio of the
torsional stiffness of the shaped shaft to that
of a solid circular section with the same
cross-sectional area thus:
Shape Factors: Failure/Strength
BENDING
t
t
4 4
2 / 3
3
A
r Z
o
= =
o fo
f
f
B
Z
Z
M
M
= = |
Define structure factor as the ratio of the failure
moment of the shaped beam to that of a solid
circular section with the same cross-sectional area
thus:
2 / 3
4
A
Z
f
B
t
| =
so,
Z
M
I
My
m
= = o
f f
Z M o =
The beam fails when the bending moment is large
enough for to reach the failure stress of the
material:
The highest stress, for a given bending moment M,
experienced by a beam is at the surface a
distance y
m
furthest from the neutral axis:
TORSION
Q
T
= t
The highest shear stress, for a given torque T,
experienced by a shaft is given by:
t
t
2 2
2 / 3
3
A
r Q
o
= =
2 / 3
2
A
Q
f
T
t
| =
so,
o fo
f
f
T
Q
Q
T
T
= = |
Define structure factor as the ratio of the failure
torque of the shaped shaft to that of a solid circular
section with the same cross-sectional area thus:
f f
Q T t =
The beam fails when the torque is large enough for
t to reach the failure shear stress of the material:
Shape Factors: Failure/Strength
Please Note:
The shape factors for failure/strength described in this lecture course are
those defined in the 2nd Edition of Materials Selection In Mechanical
Design by M.F. Ashby. These shape factors differ from those defined in
the 1st Edition of the book. The new failure/strength shape factor
definitions are the square root of the old ones.
The shape factors for the elastic case are not altered in the 2nd Edition.
Comparison of Size and Shape
Rectangular sections
I-sections
SIZE
Shape Factors
Section
Shape
Stiffness Failure/Strength
e
B
|
e
T
|
f
B
|
f
T
|
1 1 1 1
05 . 1
3
=
t
0.88 0.74 18 . 1
3
2
=
t
b
a
b
a
) ( b a
b
a
<
2 2
2
b a
ab
+
b
h
3
t
) (
58 . 0 1
3
2
b h
b
h
h
b
>
|
.
|

\
|

t 2 / 1
3
2
|
.
|

\
|
b
h t
) (
) / 6 . 0 1 ( 3
) / ( 2
2
2 / 1
b h
h b
h b
>
+
t
0.62 21 . 1
3 3
2
=
t
73 . 0
3 5
2
=
t
2 / 1
2
|
.
|

\
|
t
r
t
r
t
r
2 / 1
2
|
.
|

\
|
t
r
0.77
Shape Factors contd
Section
Shape
Stiffness Failure/Strength
e
B
|
e
T
|
f
B
|
f
T
|
t
b
6
t
4
1
8
|
.
|

\
|

b
t
t
b t
2
) / 1 (
) / 3 1 (
a b t
a b a
+
+
2 2 2
2 / 5
) )( (
) ( 8
b a b a t
ab
+ +
bt
h
2
2
t

t
t
d
2
2
2
) / 1 ( 6
) / 3 1 (
h b t
h b h
+
+ t
2
3 2
) / 1 ( 6
) / 4 1 (
h b t
h bt h
+
+ t
3
2 2
) ( b h t
h b
+
t
2
) / 1 ( 3
) / 4 1 (
b h b
b h t
+
+ t
2
) / 1 ( 6
) / 8 1 (
h b h
h b t
+
+ t
2
) / 1 ( 3
) / 4 1 (
h b h
h b t
+
+ t
2 / 1
3
2
|
.
|

\
|
t
b t
2 2 / 1
1
2
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
b
t
t
b t
2 / 3
2 / 1
) / 1 (
) / 3 1 (
a b
a b
t
a
+
+
|
.
|

\
|
2 / 3 2 / 1
2 / 1
) / 1 (
4
b a t
a
+
2 / 1
) (
2
bt
h t
2 / 3
2 / 1
) / 1 (
) / 3 1 (
3
2
h b
h b
t
h
+
+
|
.
|

\
| t
2 / 3
3 2
2 / 1
) / 1 (
) / 4 1 (
2 h b
h bt
t
h
+
+
|
.
|

\
| t
2 / 1
) (
t
t
d
2 / 3 2 / 1
) / 1 ( ) (
2
b h bt
h
+
t
2 / 3
2 / 1
) / 1 (
) / 4 1 (
3
2
h b
b h
b
t
+
+
|
.
|

\
| t
2 / 3
2 / 1
) / 1 (
) / 8 1 (
18 h b
h b
h
t
+
+
|
.
|

\
| t
2 / 3
2 / 1
) / 1 (
) / 4 1 (
3
2
h b
h b
h
t
+
+
|
.
|

\
| t
Efficiency of Standard Sections
2
4
A
I
e
B
t
| =
ELASTIC BENDING


Shape Factor:
t
|
4
log log 2 log
e
B
A I + =
Rearrange for I and take logs:
Plot logI against logA
: parallel lines of slope 2
e
B
|
Efficiency of Standard Sections
2 / 3
4
A
Z
f
B
t
| =
BENDING STRENGTH


Shape Factor:
t
|
4
log log
2
3
log
f
B
A Z + =
Rearrange for I and take logs:
Plot logI against logA
: parallel lines of slope 3/2
f
B
|
Efficiency of Standard Sections
ELASTIC TORSION
t
| t
|
2
log log 2 log ;
2
2
e
T
e
T
A K
A
K
+ = =
TORSIONAL STRENGTH
t
| t
|
2
log log
2
3
log ;
2
2 / 3
f
T
f
T
A Q
A
Q
+ = =
N.B. Open sections are good in bending, but poor in torsion
Performance Indices with Shape
ELASTIC BENDING
3
1
L
EI C
S
B
= Bending stiffness of a beam:
ELASTIC TORSION
L
KG
S
T
= Torsional stiffness of a shaft:
2 / 1
2
2 / 5
2 / 1
1
4
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
e
B
B
E
L
C
S
m
|
t
f1(F) f2(G) f3(M)

|
2 / 1
1
) (
e
B
E
M =
So, to minimize
mass m, maximise
2
4
A
I
e
B
t
| = Shape factor:
3
2
1
4 L
A E C
S
e
B
B
t
|
= so,

|
2 / 1
2
) (
e
T
E
M =
So, to minimize
mass m, maximise
2
2
A
K
e
T
t
| = Shape factor:
L
A G
S
e
T
T
t
|
2
2
= so,
( )
2 / 1
2
2 / 3
2 / 1
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
e
T
T
G
L S m
|

t
f1(F) f2(G) f3(M)
E G
8
3
~
Performance Indices with Shape
FAILURE IN BENDING
f f
Z M o = Failure when moment reaches:
FAILURE IN TORSION
f f
Q T t = Failure when torque reaches:

| o
3 / 2
3
) (
f
B f
M =
So, to minimize
mass m, maximise
2 / 3
4
A
Z
f
B
t
| = Shape factor:
t
| o
4
2 / 3
A
M
f
B f
f
= so,
3 / 2
2 / 3
3 / 2
) 4 (
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
f
B f
f
L M m
| o

t
f1(F) f2(G) f3(M)

| o
3 / 2
4
) (
f
T f
M =
So, to minimize
mass m, maximise
( )
3 / 2
2 / 3
3 / 2
4
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
f
T f
f
L T m
| o

t
f1(F) f2(G) f3(M)
2 / 3
2
A
Q
f
T
t
| = Shape factor:
t
| o
4
2 / 3
A
T
f
T f
f
= so,
) 2 (
f f
o t =
Shape in Materials Selection Maps
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1000
0.1 1 10 100
Density, (Mg/m
3
)
Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

M
o
d
u
l
u
s
,
E

(
G
P
a
)
Engineering
Alloys
Polymer
Foams
Woods
Engineering
Polymers
Elastomers
Composites
Ceramics
Search
Region
A material with Youngs modulus,
E and density, , with a particular
section acts as a material with an
effective Youngs modulus


and density
e
B
E E | =
-
e
B
| =
-
Performance index for elastic
bending including shape,



can be written as

|
2 / 1
1
) ( E
M
e
B
=
e
B
e
B
E
M
|
|
2 / 1
1
) (
=
EXAMPLE 1, Elastic bending
=1
=10
Shape in Materials Selection Maps
A material with strength,
f
and
density, , with a particular
section acts as a material with an
effective strength


and density
2
) (
f
B f f
| o o =
-
2
) (
f
B
| =
-
Performance index for failure in
bending including shape,



can be written as

o |
3 / 2
3
) (
f
f
B
M =
2
3 / 2 2
3
) (
) ) ( (
f
B
f
B f
M
|
| o
=
EXAMPLE 1, Failure in bending
Engineering
Alloys
Polymer
Foams
0.1
1
10
100
1000
10000
0.1 1 10 100
Density, (Mg/m
3
)
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

o
f

(
M
P
a
)
Ceramics
Composites
Search
Region
Woods
Elastomers
Engineering
Polymers
=1
=10
Micro-Shape Factors
Material Micro-Shape
+
Macro-Shape,
+
Macro-Shape from
Micro-Shaped Material,
=
Up to now we have only
considered the role of
macroscopic shape on the
performance of fully dense
materials.

However, materials can have
internal shape, Micro-Shape
which also affects their
performance,
e.g. cellular solids, foams,
honeycombs.


Micro-Shaped Material,
=
Micro-Shaped Material,
Micro-Shape Factors
Prismatic cells
Concentric cylindrical
shells with foam between
Fibres embedded
in a foam matrix
Consider a solid cylindrical beam expanded, at constant
mass, to a circular beam with internal shape (see right).
Stiffness of the solid beam:
3
1
L
I E C
S
o o
Bo
=
On expanding the beam, its density falls from to ,
and its radius increases from to
o

o
o
r r
2 / 1
|
.
|

\
|
=

o
r
o
o
o
o
I r r I
2
4
2
4
4 4
|
.
|

\
|
= |
.
|

\
|
= =

t t
The second moment
of area increases to
o
o
E E
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

If the cells, fibres or rings are

parallel to the axis of the beam then
The stiffness of the
expanded beam is thus |
.
|

\
|
= =

o o
B
L
EI C
L
EI C
S
3
1
3
1
Shape Factor:

o
o
e
B
S
S
= =
Function
Tie
Beam
Column
Shaft
Mats. Selection: Multiple Constraints
Objective
Minimum cost


Minimum weight


Maximum stored
energy


Minimum
environmental impact
Constraint
Stiffness


Strength


Fatigue


Geometry
Mechanical
Thermal
Electrical..
Index

2 / 1
1
E
M =
Index

o
3 / 2
2
f
M =
Materials for Safe Pressure Vessels
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Function Pressure vessel =contain
pressure p
Objective Maximum safety
Constraints (a) Must yield before break
(b) Must leak before break
(c) Wall thickness small to
reduce mass and cost
Yield before break
2
2
,
|
|
.
|

\
|
s =
f
IC
C
C
IC
K
C a
a
CK
o
t
t
o
f
IC
K
M
o
=
1
Leak before break
f
IC
IC
C
f
K pR C
t
CK t
a
pR
t
t
pR
o
t
t
o
o
o
2 2
4
2 / 2
2
,
2
=
= =
> =
f
IC
K
M
o
2
2
=
Minimum strength
f
M o =
3
Materials for Safe Pressure Vessels
Search
Region
M
3
= 100 MPa
M
1
= 0.6 m
1/2

f
IC
K
M
o
=
1
f
IC
K
M
o
2
2
=
f
M o =
3
Material M
1

(m
1/2
)
M
3

(MPa)
Comment
Tough steels
Tough Cu alloys
Tough Al alloys

Ti-alloys
High strength Al
alloys
GFRP/CFRP
>0.6
>0.6
>0.6

0.2
0.1
0.1
300
120
80

700
500
500
Standard.
OFHC Cu.
1xxx & 3xxx

High strength,
but low safety
margin. Good
for light
vessels.
1. Express the objective as an equation.
2. Eliminate the free variables using each constraint in turn, giving a set of
performance equations (objective functions) of the form:
where f, g and h are expressions containing
the functional requirements F, geometry M
and materials indices M.


3. If the first constraint is the most restrictive (known as the active constraint)
then the performance is given by P
1
, and this is maximized by seeking
materials with the best values of M
1
. If the second constraint is the active
one then the performance is given by P
2
and this is maximized by seeking
materials with the best values of M
2
; and so on.
N.B. For a given Function the Active Constraint will be material dependent.
Multiple Constraints: Formalised
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
i i i i i
M h G g F f P
M h G g F f P
M h G g F f P
M h G g F f P
=
=
=
=

Multiple Constraints: A Simple Analysis

A LIGHT, STIFF, STRONG BEAM The object function is AL m=
Constraint 1: Stiffness where so,
3
1
L
EI C
S =
12
4
t
I =
2 / 1
2 / 5
2 / 1
1
1
12
E
L
C
S
m
B


|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Constraint 2: Strength where so,
L y
I C
F
m
f
f
o
2
=
2
t
y
m
=
3 / 2
3 / 5
3 / 2
2
2
6
f
f
L
C
F
m
o

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
If the beam is to meet both constraints then, for a given material, its weight is
determined by the larger of m
1
or m
2

or more generally, for i constraints ) ..... , , max(
~
3 2 1 i
m m m m m =
Material E
(GPa)

f

(MPa)

(kgm
-3
)
m
1
(kg)
m
2
(kg)

(kg)
1020 Steel
6061 Al
Ti 6-4
205
70
115
320
120
950
7850
2700
4400
8.7
5.1
6.5
16.2
10.7
4.4
16.2
10.7
6.5
m
~
Choose a material
that minimizes
m
~
Multiple Constraints: Graphical
log Index M
1

l
o
g

I
n
d
e
x

M
2

Construct a materials selection map based on
Performance Indices instead of materials
properties.
The selection map can be divided into two
domains in each of which one constraint is active.
The Coupling Line separates the domains and is
calculated by coupling the Objective Functions:


where C
C
is the Coupling Constant.
2 2
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
1
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
M C M
G g F f
G g F f
M
c
=
(

=
Coupling Line
M
2
= C
C
M
1

M
1
Limited
Domain
M
2
Limited
Domain
A
B
Materials with M
2
/M
1
>C
C
, e.g. , are limited by
M
1
and constraint 1 is active.
Materials with M
2
/M
1
<C
C
, e.g. , are limited by
M
2
and constraint 2 is active.
A
B
Multiple Constraints: Graphical
Coupling Line
M
2
= C
C
M
1

Search
Area
C
log Index M
1

l
o
g

I
n
d
e
x

M
2

M
1
Limited
Domain
M
2
Limited
Domain
A
B
C
C
A box shaped Search Region is identified with its
corner on the Coupling Line.
Within this Search Region the performance is
maximized whilst simultaneously satisfying both
constraints. are good materials.
M
1
Limited
Domain
M
2
Limited
Domain
A
B
Coupling Line
M
2
= C
C
M
1

log Index M
1

l
o
g

I
n
d
e
x

M
2

C
Search
Area
A C
Changing the functional requirements F or geometry
G changes C
C
, which shifts the Coupling Line, alters
the Search Area, and alters the scope of materials
selection.
Now and are selectable.
Windings for High Field Magnets
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Function Magnet windings
Objective Maximize magnetic field
Constraints (a) No mechanical failure
(b) Temperature rise <150C
(c) Radius r and length L of
coil specified
2r d d
L
N Turns
Current i
B
Upper limits on field and pulse duration are
set by the coil material.
Field too high the coil fails mechanically
Pulse too long the coil overheats
Classification Pulse
Duration
Field
Strength
Continuous
Long
Standard
Short
Ultra-short
1 s -
100 ms-1 s
10 - 100 ms
10 - 1000 s
0.1 - 10 s
<30 T
30-60 T
40-70 T
70-80 T
>100 T
Windings for High Field Magnets
) , ( f | o

L
Ni
B
f o
=
The field (weber/m
2
) is

where
o
= the permeability of air, N = number of turns, i = current,
f
= filling factor,
f(,) = geometric constant, = 1+(d/r), = L/2r
CONSTRAINT 1: Mechanical Failure
Radial pressure created by the field


generates a stress in the coil
) , ( f 2
2
| o
o
B
p =
d
r B
d
pr
o
) , ( f 2
2
| o
o = =
must be less than the yield stress of the coil material
y

and hence
2 / 1
) , ( f 2
|
.
|

\
|
s
r
d
B
y o
failure
| o o
So, B
failure
is maximized
by maximizing
y
M o =
1
Windings for High Field Magnets
CONSTRAINT 1: Overheating
So, B
heat
is maximized
by maximizing
e
p
C
M
O
=

2
The energy of the pulse is (R
e
= average of the resistance over the
heating cycle, t
pulse
= length of the pulse) causes the temperature of the coil to rise by


where
e
= electrical resistivity of the coil material
C
p
= specific heat capacity of the coil material
pulse e
t R i
2
~

p o
pulse e
C d
t B
T
2 2
2
O
= A
If the upper limit for the change in temperature
is T
max
and the geometric constant of the coil
is included then the second limit on the field is ) , ( f
2 / 1
max
2 2
| o

|
|
.
|

\
|
O
A
s
e pulse
p o
heat
t
T C d
B
Windings for High Field Magnets

Material

y
(MPa)

(Mg/m
3
)
C
p

(J/kgK)

e

(10
-8
m)
B
failure

(wb/m
2
)
B
heat

(wb/m
2
)

(wb/m
2
)
High conductivity Cu
Cu-15%Nb composite
HSLA steel
250
780
1600
8.94
8.90
7.85
385
368
450
1.7
2.4
25
35
62
89
113
92
30
35
62
30
Pulse length = 10 ms
B
~
) , min(
~
heat failure
B B B = In this case the field is limited by the lowest of B
failure
and B
heat
: e.g.

) , ( f
2 / 1
max
2 2
| o

|
|
.
|

\
|
O
A
s
e pulse
p o
heat
t
T C d
B
2 / 1
) , ( f 2
|
.
|

\
|
s
r
d
B
y o
failure
| o o
2 2 1
2
) , ( f
M C M
t
T rd
M
C
pulse
max f o
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
=
| o
Thus defining the Coupling Line
10
100
1000
10000
100 1000 10000
Index M
2
(10
-8
Om
3
/J)
I
n
d
e
x

M
1

(
M
P
a
)
Search Region:
Ultra-short pulse
Search Region:
long pulse
Search Region:
short pulse
HSLA steels
Cu
Al-S150.1
Cu-4Sn
Cu-Be-Co-Ni
Be-Coppers
GP coppers
HC Coppers
Cu-Nb
Cu-Al
2
O
3

Cu-Zr
Windings for High Field Magnets
Material Comment
Continuous and long
pulse
High purity coppers
Pure Silver

Short pulse
Cu-Al
2
O
3
composites
H-C Cu-Cd alloys
H-C Cu-Zr alloys
H-C Cu-Cr alloys
Drawn Cu-Nb comps

Ultra short pulse,
ultra high field
Cu-Be-Co-Ni alloys
HSLA steels

Best choice for low field,
long pulse magnets (heat
limited)


Best choice for high field,
short pulse magnets (heat
and strength limited)




Best choice for high field,
short pulse magnets
(strength limited)
e
p
C
M
O
=

2 y
M o =
1