INFERENCE

Inference: signifies any process by which the mind proceeds from one or more propositions seen to be implied in the former.
The proposition from which a conclusion is drawn is called antecedent. The resultant proposition, that which follows after, is called consequent.

The logical relationship between the antecedent and the consequent propositions is called sequence. Sequence is signified by expressions like therefore, consequently, accordingly, hence, thus, and so, for this reason.

Formal and Material Sequence

Formal Sequence: if the sequence flows from the form of the inference
Material Sequence: if the sequence springs from the special character of the thought content

Truth and Validity

Logical truth consists in the conformity of our minds with reality. A proposition is true if things are as the proposition says they are. Validity: conservation of truth in the process of drawing inferences, that is, if the premises are true, the conclusion must likewise be true.

Mediate and Immediate Inference

Immediate Inference: consists in passing directly from one proposition to a new proposition. Immediate inference involves no advancement in knowledge, hence, it is likewise considered as inference in the broad sense Mediate Inference: draws conclusion from two propositions and does involve an advance in knowledge.

The advance in knowledge is in order of discover when we proceed from a known truth to a new truth that we did not know to be true. It also occurs when we already knew the truth of what is stated in the conclusion but now either accept it for a new reason or have come to understand why it is true.

Inference in relation to Deduction and Induction

Inference likewise involves deduction and induction.
Deduction is the process by which our minds proceed from a more universal truth to a less universal truth. Induction is the process by which our minds proceed from sufficiently enumerated instances to a universal truth.

Kinds of Immediate Inference

Significance of the study of immediate inference

it will give us facility in recognizing the quantity of terms and the quantitative relationships of subject and predicate it will help us to recognize equivalent propositional forms it will help us understand the relationship of propositions to one another as to truth and falsity

EDUCTION
Eduction is the formulation of a new proposition by the interchange of the subject and predicate of an original proposition and/or by the use or removal of negatives. The four kinds of eduction are conversion, obversion, contraposition and inversion.

CONVERSION
Conversion is the formulation of a new proposition by interchanging the subject and predicate of an original proposition but leaving its quality unchanged.
The original proposition is called the convertend, the new proposition the

converse.

Rules for Conversion

1)
2) 3)

Interchange S and P. Retain quality Do not extend any term.

Simple Conversion
Conversion is simple if the quantity of the converse is the same as the quantity of the

convertend.

Hence, if the convertend is universal, the converse should be universal; if particular, particular; if singular, singular.

By simple conversion, we can convert, E and I propositions as well as singular propositions who predicates are singular terms.

Examples of Conversion
E to E No cat is a dog. I to I Some houses are white. A to A John is the man near the door.

Partial Conversion

Conversion is partial if the quantity of the proposition is reduced from universal to particular. Only A and E may converted partially, A to I; E to O. Examples:
All men are mortal beings Some mortal beings are men. No cat is a dog. Some dog is not a cat.

A to I:

E to O:

Obversion
Obversion is the formulation of a new proposition by retaining the subject and the quantity of an original proposition, changing its quality and using as predicate the contradictory of the original predicate. The original proposition is called the obvertend; the new proposition the obverse.
Rules for Obversion:
1)
2) 3)

Retain the subject and quantity. Change the quality. As predicate, use contradictory of original predicate.

Examples of Obversion

A to E:
E to A: I to O:

O to I:

Every cat is an animal. No cat is non-animal. No cat is a dog. Every cat is a non-dog. Some house is white. Some house is not non-white. Some house is not white. Some house is non-white.

CONTRAPOSITION

Contraposition is the formulation of a new proposition whose subject is the contradictory of the original predicate. It is the combination of conversion and obversion. The original proposition is called contraponend; the new proposition, contraposit or contrapositive.

1) 2)

Rules for Type I Contraposition (A to E; E to I; O to I) Obvert Convert the obverse Rules for Type II Contraposition (A to A; E to O; O to O)
Obvert Convert the obverse Obvert the obverse

1) 2) 3)

Examples of Contraposition

Type I

Every dog is an animal. No dog is a non-animal. No non-animal is a dog. Type II Every Every Every Every man is mortal. man is not non-mortal. non-mortal is not man. non-mortal is a non-man.

INVERSION

Inversion is the formulation of a new proposition whose subject is the contradictory of the original subject. It is effected by a series of obversions and conversions. The original proposition is called the invertend; the new proposition, inverse.

Rules for Type I Inversion (A to O; E to I) 1.Obvert 2. Convert 3. Obvert 4. Convert 5.Obvert

Rules for Type II Inversion (A to I; E to O) 1. Convert 2. Obvert 3. Convert 4. Obvert

Examples of Inversion
Type I Every S is P. Every S is not non-P. Every non-P is not S. Every non-P is non-S. Some non-S is non-P Some non-S is not P.

Type II Every S is not P. Every P is not S. Every P is non-S. Some non-S is P. Some non-S is not non-P.