Grinding

Grinding is the process of removing metal in the form of small chips from the work piece by using a rotating grinding wheel. Grinding give good surface finish on the work piece. Work piece can be machined with high dimensional accuracy. Hence grinding is used as a finishing operation.

Grinding wheels
Grinding wheel is a multi point cutting tool. The cutting edges are made up of small hard abrasive particles. The abrasive particles are held together by suitable bonding materials to make the grinding wheels

Abrasives
Abrasives are hard substances which are used as cutting edges in a grinding wheel. The abrasives cut rubbed away the metal from the work piece. The two types of abrasives are 1) natural abrasive 2) artificial abrasive Natural abrasives The following are some abrasives which are naturally available on the earth. a) Sand stone or solid quartz b) Emery (50-60% aluminum oxide+ iron oxide) c) Corundum(75-90% aluminum oxide + iron oxide) d) Diamond

Artificial abrasives
The quality and the hardness of artificial abrasives are more than the natural abrasives. Hence artificial abrasives are mostly used for manufacturing grinding wheels. Some of the artificial abrasives are explained below. 1.Aluminium oxide it is manufactured from the bauxite mineral. The refined bauxite is mixed with coke and heated in an electric furnace to produce this abrasive. As aluminum oxide is very tough and less brittle. It is mostly used for manufacturing grinding wheel. It is best suitable for grinding the materials having high tensile strength like carbon steel, alloy steel, HSS, wrought iron etc. the commercial names of alundum oxide are Alorite, abrasite, electrite, alundum, borolon, etc. 2. Silicon carbide it is manufactured from silica sand. The silica sand is mixed with coke and little amount of saw dust. This mixture is heated in an electric furnace to produce silicon carbide. It is very hard and brittle. So it is used for grinding the materials having low tensile strength like cast iron, aluminum , copper, etc. the commercial names of silicon carbide are carborundum, flectrite, crystolone, etc

Types of bonds
The following types of bond are used to hold abrasive particles to form the grinding wheel. 1. Vitrified bond (V) 2. Silicate bond (S) 3. Resinoid bond (B) 4. Rubber bond ( R) 5. Shellac bond ( S)

Types of bond
Vitrified bond clay and abrasive grains are mixed thoroughly with water . This mixture is filled in to the mould and dried. The dried material is cut to the required shape. Then it is heated to about 700 c for long time. Now the clay fuses and forms a hard substance called porcelain which bond the abrasive grains. Vitrified bonded wheels are strong and porous. They are not affected by acids and alkalies. Silicate bond sodium silicate is mixed with abrasive grains. This mixture is filled in to the mould and dried for many hours . Then it is kept in a furnace at about 260 c for number of days . Silicate bonded wheels are water proof. They are used for grinding cutters and blades. Resinoid bond abrasive grains are mixed with synthetic resin. This mixture is filled in to the moulds and heated to about 200 c for long time. Now, the resin fuses and bonds the abrasive grains together. Resinoid wheels can run at high speeds . They are used for rough grinding of iron and steel casting.

Types of bond
Rubber bond the abrasive grains are mixed with sulphur and liquid rubber. This mixture is formed into sheets of required thickness by rolling process. The wheels of required diameter are cut from this sheet. These wheels have low thermal resistance and more elastic. But it gives good surface finish. The rubber bonded wheels are used as regulating wheels in centre less grinding. Shellac bond Shellac and abrasive grains are mixed to gether uniformly; this mixture is heated and pressed in moulds to get required shape. Then it is kept in a furnace at about 150 c for few hours. The shellac bonded wheels are used when high accuracy is required. Very thin wheels are used for cutting off operations

Grinding - Hardness
Material Common Glass Quartz Hardened Steel HK 350-500 800-1100 700-1300

Silicon Carbide
Aluminum Oxide

2100-3000
2000-3000

Cubic boron nitride

Diamond

4000-5000
7000-8000

HK: Knoop hardness number

Grinding - Grain Size

Larger grains remove materials at a faster rate. Smaller grains produce better surface finish. Grain size is measured by the screen mesh size used to sift out the grains. Ie. No. 8 Screen results in No. 8 grain.

Grain size

Grinding Wheel Specification

Wheel specificationusing Aluminum oxide and Silicon Carbide as the bonding material: Ex: 30A46H6VXX
30 Prefix (manufacturers symbol for abrasive, optional) A Abrasive type (A aluminum oxide, C silicon carbide) 46 Grain size (coarse = 8,10,12,14,16,20,24; medium = 30,36,46,54,60; fine = 70,80,,180; very fine = 220,240,.,600) H Grade (A = soft, M = medium, Z = hard) 6 Structure (1 = very dense, 15 = very open) V bond type (B-resinoid, E-shellac, R-rubber, Ssilicate, V-vitrified, O- oxychloride) XX Manufacturers record (optional)

Wheel specification using Diamond or Cubic boron nitride Ex: XXD150P100MZZ1/8

XX Prefix (manufacturers symbol for abrasive, optional) D Abrasive type (D diamond, B cubic boron nitride) 150 Grain size (coarse = 8,10,12,14,16,20,24; medium = 30,36,46,54,60; fine = 70,80,,180; very fine = 220,240,.,600) P Grade (A = soft, M = medium, Z = hard) 100 Concentration (manufacturers designation) 25 (low)-100(high) M Bond type (B-resin, M-metal, V-vitrified) ZZ Bond modification (manufacturers notation) 1/8 Depth of abrasive (in inches or mm)

Specification of grinding machine

1.Type of grinding machine 2.Maximum size of the work piece that can be held in the machine 3.Diameter of grinding wheel 4. Maximum travel of the wheel head 5. For reciprocating table, a) length and width of the table b) maximum longitudinal and cross wise movement of the table 6. for rotary table a) Diameter of the table

Classification of grinding machines

1. Rough grinders a)floor stand grinders b) bench grinders c)portable grinders d)abrasive belt grinders e)swing frame grinder 2. Precision grinders 1. cylindrical grinders a)plain centre type grinders b)universal centre type grinders c) centreless grinders

Classification of grinding machines

2.Internal grinders a) chucking type grinders b) planetary type grinders c) centre less grinders 3. Surface grinders a) horizontal spindle- reciprocating table b) horizontal spindle- rotary table c) vertical spindle reciprocating table d) vertical spindle- rotary table e) tool and cutter grinders f) special grinders

Surface grinders
Surface grinders are used for grinding flat surfaces of work piece. According to the spindle position and the type of the table the surface grinders are classified as follows: 1.Horizontal spindle- reciprocating table 2. Horizontal spindle- rotary table 3. Vertical spindle reciprocating table 4. vertical spindle rotary table

Horizontal spindle-reciprocating table surface grinder

Horizontal spindle-reciprocating table surface grinder

The important parts of this machine are explained below 1. Base it is a rectangular box type casting. The driving mechanism is placed inside the base. A vertical column is mounted at its back. The top of the base has horizontal guide ways perpendicular to the column. 2.Column the column is mounted on the base. It has vertical guide ways .the wheel head slides vertically along these guide ways 3. Saddle The saddle is mounted on the base. It slides along the guide ways of the base perpendicular to the column. Cross feed can be given by moving the saddle. The saddle has horizontal guide ways on its top

Horizontal spindle-reciprocating table surface grinder

4.Table
The table is mounted on the guide ways of the saddle. Longitudinal feed is given by moving the table along these guide ways parallel to the column. The top of the table has Tslots for fitting work holding device or work piece. Magnetic chuck can be used for holding ferrous materials. Trip dogs are

provided on the sides of the table for adjusting stroke length.

5.Wheel head
Wheel head is mounted on the vertical guide ways of the column. It has a horizontal spindle to insert grinding wheel it has a motor for driving the grinding wheel.

Horizontal spindle-reciprocating table surface grinder

Principle of operation
The work piece is held on the table by suitable work holding device. The stroke lengths is adjusted according to the length of works piece by moving the trip dogs. The depth of cut is given by moving the wheel head vertically downwards. The grinding is done by reciprocating the work piece on the table under the grinding wheel which rotates at high speed. Cross feed is given by moving the saddle after the end of every stroke. After grinding the full width of work piece,depth of cut is given by moving the wheel head vertically downwards.

Horizontal spindle-rotary table surface grinder

Horizontal spindle-rotary table surface grinder

A rotary table is used in this machine. Small work pieces are fitted on the table by using magnetic chucks. The table rotates with the work piece. The wheel head has a horizontal spindle which reciprocates slowly about its axis. The grinding wheel mounted at the end of the spindle rotates at high speed. The depth of cut is given by moving the wheel head downwards. The grinding is done by rotating the work piece in the rotary table under the grinding wheel which rotates at high speed. Cross feed is given by reciprocating the spindle. This is used for grinding flat surfaces of small and medium size work pieces.

Vertical spindle-reciprocating table surface grinder

Vertical spindle-reciprocating table surface grinder

This type of grinder has a vertical spindle mounted on the wheel head. Flat or cup shaped grinding wheel is fitted to the end of the spindle. All other parts are similar to a horizontal spindle reciprocating table surface grinder. The work piece is held on the table kby suitable work holding device. Grinding is done by reciprocating the work piece on the table under the grinding wheel which rotates at high speed about a vertical axis. The cross feed is given by moving the saddle after the end of each stroke. After grinding the full depth of the work piece, depth of cut is given by moving the wheel head downwards. This type of grinder is used for grinding flat surfaces of medium size. Work pieces.

Vertical spindle-rotary table surface grinder

Vertical spindle-rotary table surface grinder

In this type of machine large number of work pieces are held on the rotary table. Grinding is done on the work pieces at a same time. The vertical spindle mounted on the wheel head carries a flat or cup shaped grinding wheel. The grinding is done by rotating the work pieces on the rotary table under the grinding wheel which rotates at high speed. The cross feed is given by moving the magnetic chuck crosswise. The depth of cut is given by moving the wheel head downwards.

Centerless grinders

Centre less grinders

Centre less grinding is performed on work pieces which do not have centres, such as pistons, valves, rings, tubes, balls, wrist pins, drills, bushings, shafts, etc. Centreless grinding can be done on both external and internal cylindrical surfaces. The principles of external centreless grinding is shown in the figure. The grinder has two wheels, a larger grinding wheel revolving at a high speed and a small regulating wheel revolving at slow speed. Work rest is located between wheels. The work is placed on the work rest. The regulating wheel is fed forward forcing the work against grinding wheel. So, the work on work rest is pressed against the grinding wheel surface. By friction, the regulating wheel make the work piece to rotate. The rotating work piece is pressed between two wheels.

Centrless grinding
So, the grinding wheel grinds the work piece. The regulating wheel does not remove metal as it rotates slowly. The grinding wheel is driven by electric motor and rotates at maximum surface speed of about 1800 rpm and regulating wheel speed from 33 to 130 rpm

Methods of centre less grinding

Basically, there are different methods by which centreless grinding can be done. They are 1. Through feed 2. In feed 3. End feed

Methods of centre less grinding

Methods of centreless grinding

Through feed it is used for straight cylinderical work piece like long shafts or bars, etc. in this method, the regulating wheel is tilted at a small angle. This makes the work to move axiall through the space between the grinding wheel and regulating wheel. The guides are provided at both the ends of wheel and guide the movement of work piece

Methods of centreless grinding

In feed grinding it is similar to plunge grinding. The work is placed on the work rest against an end stop. This prevents the axial movement of work piece. The regulating wheel and the work rest with the work pieces are moved towards the grinding wheel by hand feed shown in figure this method is useful to grind shoulders and formed surfaces.

Methods of centre less grinding

End feed grinding in this method, both the grinding and regulating wheel are tapered and thus , it produces tapered work pieces. The work piece is fed lengthwise between wheel and is ground as it advances until it reaches the end stop shown in fig.

Cylinderical grinding

Cylinderical grinding
This type of grinder has the following important parts. 1. Base 2. lower table 3. upper table 4. Head stock and Tail stock 5. wheel head

Cylinderical grinding
Base Base is a box type casting fitted on the floor. It supports all other parts of the grinder. It houses the table drive mechanism. The base has longitudinal guide ways on its top. Lower table The lower table slides over the guide ways of the bed . Longitudinal feed is given to the work piece b moging the lower table. The table can be moved by hand or poer . Adjustable trip dogs are fitted on the sides of the lower table. These trip dogs actuate the table reversing lever to reverse the table automatically .

Cylinderical grinding
Upper table the upper table is mounted on the lower table. This table is pivoted at the centre. It can be swiveled to required angle (maximum 10) and clamped in position. The swiveling is done for grinding tapers. The upper table has length wise Tslots for mounting the head stock and tail stock. Head stock and tail stock these are mounted on the upper table by using T bolts. The work piece is held between the the head stock and the tail stock centres. Head stock drives the work piece throuh driving plate and the pin. The tail stock can be adjusted according to the length of work piece and clamped in position.

Cylinderical grinding
Wheel head the wheel head has a grinding wheel and a driving motor. The wheel head is placed over the bed at its back side. It is mounted on a slide. The slide can be moved perpendicular to the table for giving cross feed.

Principle of cente type cylinderical grinding

Principle of centre type cylinderical grinding

This method is used when the length of work piece is more than the width of the grinding wheel. The work piece is held between the two centres. The axis of the work piece should be parallel to the axis of the grinding wheel mounted on the wheel head. The grinding wheel is made to rotate with high speed in fixed position. The slowly rotating work piece is fed longitudinally against the wheel for grinding. The depth of cut is given by moving the wheel head perpendicular to the table.

Related abrasive processes

Honing Lapping Super finishing Polishing Buffing

Honing
It is also an abrasive process used for finishing previously machined surfaces. It is mostly used for finishing internal cylindrical surfaces such as drilled or bored holes. the tool used called a hone is a bonded abrasive stone made in the form of stick. Although honing enables the maximum stock removal out of the entire surface finishing operations, this higher stock removing capacity enables the application of honing for correcting slight out of roundness or taper. The usual amount of stock left for removal by honing is from 0.1mm to 0.25 mm . Honing is performed at relatively slow speeds in the range of 10-30meters/min

Honing
The honing tool works more or less in the same way as an expanding reamer. The honing stones are so held in a holder or mandrel that they can be forced outwards by mechanical or hydraulic pressure against the surface of the bore. Aluminum oxide, silicon carbide or diamond grains of suitable grit are bonded in resinoid, vitrified or shellac bond to form the honing stones usually carrying impregnated traces of sulphur or was for longer tool life and better cutting action.

Honing

Lapping
Lapping is a surface finishing process used for producing geometrically accurate flat, cylindrical and spherical surfaces. The removal of metal takes place by abrasive action. Lapping is used for 1) removing small amount of material from the surfaces of tools 2) removing small defects and surface cracks left during previous operations. 3) eliminating small distortion

Lapping

Super finishing
Super finishing can be used to external and internal cylindrical , tapered, flat surfaces. External cylindrical surfaces can be super finished by oscillating the abrasive stones at amplitude of 1.5 mm to 3 mm and frequencies of 500 to 1500 cycles per minute reciprocating axially along the rotating work piece. External cylindrical surfaces can also be super finished y oscillating and rotating the abrasive stones about the stationary work piece. Internal cylindrical surfaces can be super finished by axially oscillating and reciprocating abrasive stones applied to the rotating work piece.

Super finishing

Polishing
Polishing is also a surface finishing process. It is performed by a polishing wheel to remove appreciable quantity of metal, tool marks , points and other defects from any rough surfaces on the metal. It is mainly used for obtaining good surface finish. Generally , a wheel made of leather, papers, canvas or wool is used in this process. Similar to grinding process, here also work is held against the rotating polishing wheel. To remove metal from the surface, either wheel may be pressed towards the work or work may be pressed towards the wheel.

Buffing
Buffing is the process of making higher, lustrous, to be made on the surfaces of work piece which cannot be obtained by polishing process. In this process, a very fine abrasive si applied with a rotating wheel. Before applying the abrasive first it should be mixed with binder. The binder may be wax mixed with grease paraffin and kerosene or turpentine an other liquids. Abrasive may consist of iron oxide, chromium oxide, emery etc.

Abrasive jet grinding

In electro chemical grinding , machining takes place by both grinding and chemical reaction. The grinding wheel impregnated with a on conductive abrasive acts as anode and work acts as a cathode. When the supply is given, grinding wheel rotates. At that time, electrolyte solution is passed through the nozzle in the grinding zone. Due to this, electrical bridge is completed between anode and cathode. Here, the work and wheel are not made to contact directly. Due to rotating action of the of the grinding wheel, the electrolyte is passed the work at higher speed. So, the metal is removed by both abrasive and electrolyte action. In case of abrasive jet grinding, only the electrolyte used in electrochemical grinding is replaced by abrasive jet. but grinding process is carried out in the same manner as that of electrochemical grinding as shown in the fig

Abrasive jet grinding