Electricity!

The atom is made of 3 sorts of particles. The electron The proton The neutron

The electron is negatively charged. The proton is positively charged. The neutron has no charge, it is neutral.

Electricity
Sometimes electrons get knocked out of place free electrons If they go to where other electrons are missing, this creates a current of electricity!

ANALOGY OF A CHARGE MOVING IN A CONDUCTOR

12 Volts

0 Volts

Static Electricity!
Charge that stays on an object When something gives up or gains electrons Does not move along a wire or other conductor Static electricity occurs when there is a build up of electric charge on the surface of a material.

Dynamic Electricity :
.Dynamic electricity is the flow of electric charges through a conductor; in other words, an electric current.

CURRENT : Flow of electrons through some material is known as current. Unit of current is ampere.

One ampere is said to flow when one second

6.24 X1018

electrons passes in

P.D (Potential Difference) : It is the difference in electrical potential between two points in the electrical circuit. Shortly called as P.D Unit of P.D is Volt Power : It is the rate of doing work Or It is the product of voltage and current, and is denoted by P Unit of Power - Watt

E.M.F (Electro Motive Force) :

It is the force required to move electrons from one point to another point. Its unit is Volt
Resistance : It is the property of a material to oppose flow of electrons through it.It is denoted by R Unit of resistance is ohm Symbol of resistance

Conductors
A conductor is a material that current can pass through easily .

 Semiconductor :A material that is usually viewed as a poor conductor, but under special circumstances it can be a useful conductor.Ex Silicon and Germanium Conductor.

 Insulator :A material that restricts the flow of current. Large potential differences are required to push electrical current through these materials. Ex Wood, Rubber, Plastic, and Glass

Resistance

Resistance : Physically resistance is a measure of a materials opposition to flow of current. Resistance is measured in units called Ohms

The higher the resistance of a material, the more potential difference is required to maintain a current.
The resistance of a material is temperature dependant.

LAWS OF RESISTANCE : The resistance R offered by a conductor depends on following factors 1.It varies directly as its length 2.It varies inversely as the cross section of the conductor 3.It depends on the nature of the material 4.It also depends on temperature of the conductor Neglecting the last factor Resistance R = l /A Where = specific resistance l= length of the conductor A=Area of cross section of the conductor

Specific Resistance : Specific resistance of a material is defined as the resistance offered to a current when passed between the opposite faces of the unit cube of the material. symbol Unit ohm cm

Temperature Effects
Temperature has a significant effect on the resistance of conductors, semiconductors and insulators. For good conductors, an increase in temperature will result in an increase in the resistance level. Consequently, conductors have positive temperature coefficients. For semiconductor materials, an increase in temperature will result in a decrease in the resistance level. Consequently, semiconductors have negative temperature coefficients. As with semiconductors, an increase in temperature will result in a decrease in the resistance of an insulator. The result is a negative temperature coefficient.

Type
Carbon

Characteristics
Least expensive, wide available range of values and tolerances, typically used for low power and low frequency applications Used in higher voltage applications and where high precision is called for. These devices exhibit internal capacitance, due to the metal film deposits, which can cause changes in the device impedance at higher frequencies. Used for medium to high voltage applications requiring high power handling. However due to their geometry they exhibit high inductive properties, making them suitable only for lower frequency applications.

Metal Film

Wirewound

Capacitor

CAPACITOR: If two conductive plates are separated by a di-electric material, the formed component is called Capacitor. (Or) Capacitor is a device which stores electrical energy in the form of Electrical Charges and it draws leading current. Capacitance : Capacitance is the capacity of a body to store an electrical charge . Any object that can be electrically charged exhibits capacitance. A common form of energy storage device is a parallel-plate capacitor If q is the charge and V is the voltage then the capacitance C is given by

Unit for capacitance is Farad

At the start the capacitor is fully discharged. When the switch is closed, the capacitor is charged up from the energy stored in the battery until the capacitor has the same voltage as the battery. At first it charges up rapidly and then gradually slows. Open switch. The capacitor remains fully charged. Pushing the RESET button short circuits the capacitor and the energy stored in the capacitor is now discharged, slowly at first. With small capacitors the energy discharge is very fast, almost immediate. With large capacitors, this can take a long time. This is why capacitors are used in timing circuits.

Capacitor Analogy Think of water flowing through a pipe. If we imagine a capacitor as being a storage tank with an inlet and an outlet pipe, it is possible to show approximately how an electronic capacitor works. First, let's consider the case of a "coupling capacitor" where the capacitor is used to connect a signal from one part of a circuit to another but without allowing any direct current to flow.

Capacitor passes AC in coupling circuits

If the current flow is alternating between zero and a maximum, our "storage tank" capacitor will allow the current waves to pass through.

CAPACITORS IN SERIES:
When two or more capacitors are connected from end to end then the connection is called a series connection. In this circuit, each capacitor holds the same charge but the Potential Difference across each capacitor is different.

C1

C2 VS

C3

Necessity of Grouping of Capacitors in Series: The necessity of grouping capacitors in series is to reduce the total capacitance in the circuit. Another reason is that two or more capacitors in series can withstand a higher potential difference than an individual capacitor can. But, the voltage drop across each capacitor depends upon the individual capacitance. If the capacitances are unequal, you must be careful not to exceed the breakdown voltage of any.

The charging current ( iC ) flowing through the capacitors is THE SAME for all capacitors as it only has one path to follow and iT = i1 = i2 = i3 etc. Then, Capacitors in Series all have the same current so each capacitor stores the same amount of charge regardless of its capacitance. This is because the charge stored by a plate of any one capacitor must have come from the plate of its adjacent capacitor. Therefore, capacitors connected together in series must have the same charge Q. QT = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 ....etc

C1

C2 VS

C3

VS VC1 VC2 VC3

QT QT QT Vc 1 , Vc 2 , Vc 3 C1 C2 C3
QT QT QT QT Vs CT C1 C 2 C 3
1

CT

1 1 1 C1 C 2 C 3

Find Total capacitance

Example No2 Find the overall capacitance and the individual rms voltage drops across the following sets of two capacitors in series when connected to a 12V a.c. supply. a) two capacitors each with a capacitance of 47nF b) one capacitor of 470nF connected in series to a capacitor of 1uF

a) Total Capacitance,

Voltage drop across the two identical 47nF capacitors,

b) Total Capacitance, Voltage drop across the two non-identical Capacitors: C1 = 470nF and C2 = 1uF.

CAPACITORS in PARALLEL

Example No1

Find total capacitance

Example No2. Calculate the combined capacitance in micro-Farads (uF) of the following capacitors when they are connected together in a parallel combination: a) two capacitors each with a capacitance of 47nF b) one capacitor of 470nF connected in parallel to a capacitor of 1uF

Coulomb's Law: 1.) From experimental observation, Charles Coulomb found that the magnitude of the electrical force Fc acting upon a point charge q1 due to the presence of a second point charge q2 a distance r meters away is: Fc =
1 4 0 q1q 2 r2

Circuit : A rout that starts and finishes at the same place

Open-Closed Circuits

Open Circuit : If a switch is opened electrons stay still. No current flows.

Closed Circuit : If a switch is closed electrons move and energy is released.

SHORT CIRCUIT: If the load or consumer of a circuit is short-circuited and the current is not passing through the load then it is called a short circuit. In this circuit a heavy current flows which burns the fuse or otherwise which cause a fire due to overheating of cables and burning of their insulation.

CONSUMER

MEDIUM

SH
ELECTRICITY

OR T

CONTROLLER

LEAKAGE CIRCUIT: If due to loss of insulation, a phase wire comes in contact with a metallic conduit pipe or a humid-wall then a small flow of current is set up from the phase to ground. This type of circuit is called a leakage circuit. It causes a loss of electric power and reduces the useful flow of current through the load.

OHMS LAW: There is a definite relation between the Current, Voltage and Resistance. The relation was presented by the Scientist Mr. Ohm and it is known as Ohms Law. The Current flowing through a resistor is directly proportional to the voltage applied and is inversely proportional to the resistance if the temperature and other physical conditions are kept constant. I=

SERIES CONNECTION: When two or more than two resistances are connected in such a way that the second terminal of the first resistance connects the first terminal of the second resistance and second terminal of the second resistance connects the first terminal of the third resistance and so one keeping the path of electric current the same, it is called a series connection.

R1

R2

R3

Note that since there is only one path for the current to travel, the current through each of the resistors is the same.

the voltage drops across the resistors must add up to the total voltage supplied by the battery:

Since V = I R, then

Find 1.Total resistance 2.Total Current 3.Voltage drop across each resistor 4. Power consumed by each resistor

CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES CIRCUIT:

The current is same at every resistance (load), because the path for the current is only one. The total resistance of the circuit is equal to the sum of all resistances of the circuit. Voltage is divided according to resistance. Maximum power will be consumed across resistor which has maximum value

If different wattage bulbs are connected in series, the less wattage bulb glows more bright than high wattage bulb.

PARALLEL CONNECTION: When two or more than two resistances are connected in such a way, all the first terminals of the resistors connected and all the second terminals connected together, is called as Parallel Connection

between points A and B, the potential difference is the same. The current splits as it travels

By Ohm's Law

V V V V R R R R
e q 1 2

CHARACTORISTICS OF PARALLEL CIRCUIT: Voltage is same across each resistor in the circuit. Current is divided according to load (resistance), because the paths for current are more than one. Total resistance of the circuit is less than lowest resistance connected in parallel.

Superconductors
Superconductors are conductors of electric charge that, for all practical purposes, have zero resistance. The relatively low speed of electrons through conventional conductors is due to collisions with atoms and repulsive forces from other electrons. Cooper effect: Electrons travel in pairs and help each other maintain a significantly higher velocity through the medium.

Superconductors
The goal of superconductivity at room temperature
Before 1986: Superconductivity could only be established at temperatures colder than 23 K(-250.15 celsius) After 1986: Physicists Alex Muller and George Bednorz of the IBM Zurich Research Center found a ceramic material, lanthanum barium copper oxide that exhibited superconductivity at 30 K(-243.15) . Professors Paul Chu and Man Kven Wu raised the temperature to 95 K (-178.15 ) using a superconductor of yttrium barium copper oxide, enabling liquid nitrogen (boiling point 77 K) to be used for cooling.