OSI - The Model

A layer model Each layer performs a subset of the required communication functions Each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform more primitive functions Each layer provides services to the next higher layer Changes in one layer should not require changes in other layers

OSI Layers

Physical

Mechanical Electrical Functional Procedural

Data Link

Means of activating, maintaining and deactivating a reliable link Error detection and control Higher layers may assume error free transmission

OSI Layers

Network

Transport of information Higher layers do not need to know about underlying technology Not needed on direct links

Transport

Exchange of data between end systems Error free In sequence No losses No duplicates Quality of service

OSI Layers

Session Control of dialogues between applications Dialogue discipline Grouping Recovery Presentation Data formats and coding Data compression Encryption Application Means for applications to access OSI environment

Use of a Relay

Ethernet Layer 1: Physical

EIA/TIA defines the cabling specifications for Ethernet LANs (http://www.eia.org and http://www.tiaonline.org), including the pinouts for the RJ-45 connects The most popular Ethernet standards (10BASE-T, 100BASE-T, and 1000BASE-T) each use two twisted pairs (specifically pairs 2 and 3 shown in Figure) Many Ethernet standards use two twisted pairs, with one pair being used for transmission in each direction. PC network interface card (NIC) transmits on pair 1,2 and receives on pair 3,6; switch ports do the opposite

Ethernet Layer 1: Physical

Straight-through cable works when connecting pair 1,2 on the PC (PC transmit pair) to the switch ports pair 1,2, on which the switch receives When the two devices on the ends of the cable both transmit using the same pins, a cross-over cable is required
Two connected switches send using the pair at pins 3,6 and receive on pins 1,2, then the cable needs to connect the pair at 3,6 on one end to pins 1,2 at the other end, and vice versa Cross-over cables can also be used between a pair of PCs, swapping the transmit pair on one end (1,2) with the receive pins at the other end (3,6)

CSMA/CD

The original Ethernet specifications expected collisions to occur on the LAN The media was shared Any electrical signal induced onto the wire could collide with a signal induced by another device When two or more Ethernet frames overlap on the transmission medium at the same instant in time, a collision occurs The collision results in bit errors and lost frames The original Ethernet specifications defined the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) algorithm to deal with the inevitable collisions CSMA/CD minimizes the number of collisions

CSMA/CD
When collisions occur, CSMA/CD defines how the sending stations can recognize the collisions and retransmit the frame, following list outlines the steps in the CSMA/CD process: A device with a frame to send listens until the Ethernet is not busy (in other words, the device cannot sense a carrier signal on the Ethernet segment). When the Ethernet is not busy, the sender begins sending the frame. The sender listens to make sure that no collision occurred. If there was a collision, all stations that sent a frame send a jamming signal to ensure that all stations recognize the collision. After the jamming is complete, each sender of one of the original collided frames randomizes a timer and waits that long before resending. (Other stations that did not create the collision do not have to wait to send.) After all timers expire, the original senders can begin again with Step 1

Collision Domains

A collision domain is a set of devices that can send frames that collide with frames sent by another device in that same set of devices Before the advent of LAN switches, Ethernets were either physically shared (10BASE2 and 10BASE5) or shared by virtue of shared hubs and their Layer 1 repeat out all other ports logic Ethernet switches greatly reduce the number of possible collisions, both through frame buffering and through their more complete Layer 2 logic

Ethernet hubs and switches

By definition of the term, Ethernet hubs:

Switches have the same cabling and signal regeneration benefits as hubs, but switches do a lot moreincluding sometimes reducing or even eliminating collisions by buffering frames When switches receive multiple frames on different switch ports, they store the frames in memory buffers to prevent collisions

Operate solely at Ethernet Layer 1 Repeat (regenerate) electrical signals to improve cabling distances Forward signals received on a port out all other ports (no buffering)

Ethernet hubs and switches

Data Link layer

To accomplish accurate delivery, the Data Link Layer provides the following services:
Machine address determination of both sending and receiving machines Formatting of Network Layer "packets" into frames with machine addresses attached Sequencing and re-sequencing of frames transmitted out of sequence

Layer 2: Data Link

Examples of data-link layer technologies are the following: Frame Relay Asynchronous Transport Mode (ATM) Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) High-level data-link control (HDLC) IEEE 802.3z and IEEE 802.3ab (Gigabit Ethernet) IEEE 802.3u (Fast Ethernet) Ethernet version 2 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) Token Ring Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP)

Ethernet Layer 2: Framing and Addressing

In many documents, the word frame refers to the bits and bytes that include the Layer 2 header and trailer, along with the data encapsulated by that header and trailer The term packet is most often used to describe the Layer 3 header and data, without a Layer 2 header or trailer Ethernets Layer 2 specifications relate to the creation, forwarding, reception, and interpretation of Ethernet frames The original Ethernet specifications were owned by the combination of Digital Equipment Corp., Intel, and Xerox hence the name Ethernet (DIX) shown in Figure , which shows the various Ethernet frame formats

Ethernet Layer 2: Framing and Addressing

Later, in the early 1980s, the IEEE standardized Ethernet, defining parts (Layer 1 and some of Layer 2) in the 802.3 Media Access Control (MAC) standard, and other parts of Layer 2 in the 802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC) standard Later, the IEEE realized that the 1- byte DSAP field in the 802.2 LLC header was too small. As a result, the IEEE introduced a new frame format with a SubNetwork Access Protocol (SNAP) header after the 802.2 header as shown in the third style of header in Figure Later, in 1997, the IEEE added the original DIX V2 framing to the 802.3 standard as well

Ethernet Layer 2: Framing and Addressing

Types of Ethernet Addresses

Ethernet addresses, also frequently called MAC addresses, are 6 bytes in length, typically listed in hexadecimal form There are three main types of Ethernet address

Ethernet Address Formats

The IEEE intends for unicast addresses to be unique in the universe by administering the assignment of MAC addresses The IEEE assigns each vendor a code to use as the first 3 bytes of its MAC addresses; that first half of the addresses is called the Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI) The IEEE expects each manufacturer to use its OUI for the first 3 bytes of the MAC assigned to any Ethernet product created by that vendor The vendor then assigns a unique value in the low-order 3 bytes for each Ethernet card that it manufacturesthereby ensuring global uniqueness of MAC addresses

Types of Ethernet Addresses

I/G = individual/Group bit U/L = Universal/Local bit

Ethernet Layer 2: Framing and Addressing

Ethernet Layer 2: Framing and Addressing

MAC Address

Broadcast Domains

In an Ethernet LAN, a set of devices that receive a broadcast sent by any one of the devices in the same set is called a broadcast domain A switch simply forwards all broadcasts out all interfaces, except the interface on which it received the frame As a result, all the interfaces on an individual switch are in the same broadcast domain Also, if the switch connects to other switches and hubs, the interfaces on those switches and hubs are also in the same broadcast domain

Broadcast and Collision Domains

Broadcast and Collision Domains

Switch Operation

Switch Operation

There are three primary operating modes used to handle frame switching:

Cut-through Store-and-forward Fragment Free (modified cutthrough)

Switch Operation

LAN Transmission Methods

Unicast Process The source addresses the packet with the destination address The packet is sent into the network The network delivers the packet to the destination

LAN Transmission Methods

Multicast Process The source addresses the packet using a multicast address The packet is sent into the network The network copies the packet A copy is delivered to each destination that is included in the multicast address

LAN Transmission Methods

Broadcast Process The source addresses the packet with the broadcast address The packet is sent into the network The network copies the packet The packet copies are delivered to all destinations on the network

LAN Logical Topologies (Architecture)

The main advantage of the bus topology is the ease of initial set-up The primary disadvantage is that a break in the cable affects the entire LAN

Bus Architecture A single cable connects each workstation Signals are broadcasted to all stations, but stations only act on the frames addressed to them

LAN Logical Topologies (Architecture)

Ring Topology (Architecture)

The only advantage of the ring topology is that it uses the network's lengths, which are shorter, using less cabling. The main disadvantage is that a cable break between devices affects the entire LAN (only in the Token Ring Standard). Cost is another factor. The ring topology usually have higher implementation costs

Unidirectional links connect the transmit side of one device to the receive side of another device Devices transmit frames to the next device (downstream member) in the ring

LAN Logical Topologies (Architecture)

Star Topology (Architecture)

The primary advantage of the star topology is that a cable break usually affects only one workstation. Workstations can be added easily, without affecting the entire network The main disadvantage is the amount of cable used

In a star topology, each station is connected to a central device that functions as a multi-port repeater Physical LAN topologies are usually characterized as either bus or ring. Note that a LAN's Physical and Logical topology often differs

Virtual LAN (VLAN)

A VLAN is simply an administratively defined subset of switch ports that are in the same broadcast domain Ports can be grouped into different VLANs on a single switch, and on multiple interconnected switches as well By creating multiple VLANs, the switches create multiple broadcast domains By doing so, a broadcast sent by a device in one VLAN is forwarded to the other devices in that same VLAN; however, the broadcast is not forwarded to devices in the other VLANs Layer 2 switches forward frames between devices in the same VLAN, but they do not forward frames between two devices in different VLANs

Virtual LAN (VLAN)

Virtual LAN (VLAN)

Virtual LAN (VLAN)

VLAN Trunking

ISL encapsulation

IEEE 802.1Q tagged frame

Virtual LAN (VLAN)

802.1Q-in-Q Tunneling

802.1Q-in-Q allows an SP to preserve 802.1Q VLAN tags across a WAN service By doing so, VLANs actually span multiple geographically dispersed sites