Wireless Networks Routing

Outlines
Wireless networks architectures
Routing protocols for wireless networks
Mobile ad-hoc Networks (MANETs) Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) Vehicle ad-hoc networks (VANETs)

Wireless Communications
Wireless networks use radio frequency channels as their physical medium for communications. Each node in the network broadcast information which can be received by all nodes within its direct transmission range.

Wireless network architectures

Infrastructure-based wireless networks
Fixed base stations / access points are

used.

Infrastructure-less wireless networks (Ad-hoc networks) No fixed infrastructure support are available. Hybrid wireless networking

architecture

Wireless network architectures (cont.)

Infrastructure-based wireless networks
Uses fixed base stations / access points which are responsible

for coordinating communication between the hosts.

Single-hop communication

Wireless network architectures (cont.)

Ad-hoc networks
Consists of nodes which communicate with each other through

wireless medium without any fixed infrastructure.

Multi-hop communications

Properties of ad-hoc networks

No pre-build infrastructure

All nodes are wireless capable

Base stations are not necessary

Ease of deployment
Quickly deploy

Some emerging types of wireless networks

MANETs (Mobile Ad-hoc Networks) WSNs (Wireless Sensor Networks) VANET (Vehicle Ad-hoc Networks) WMN (Wireless Mesh Networks)

Routing protocols for wireless networks MANETs

A dynamically reconfigurable ad-hoc network. Main issues in the design and operation of MANETs.
(1) MANETs are more unstable than wired-networks because

of the lack of a centralized entity.

Routing protocols for wireless networks MANETs (cont.)

(2) Mobility will cause network topology to change, which results in a great change in connection between two hosts.

(3) The connectivity between network nodes is not guaranteed, so intermittent connectivity is common.

The main routing problems for MANETs

8 10 9

7 4 6

Node mobility
2 3 5 1

Routing path broken frequently

Traditional ad-hoc routing protocols

Routing protocols for MANETs

Flooding-type routing protocol (flooding) Table-driven routing protocol (proactive) On-demand routing protocol (reactive) Hybrid routing protocol

Flooding-type routing protocol (Flooding)

9 10 8 2 20 3 11 7 1 12 19 16 6 13 15 18 17 14 4

Flooding-type routing protocol (Flooding)

Advantage: They do not need to maintain network

topology, or is looking for data transmission path, so they can quickly transfer information.
Disadvantage: Node receives information after, must

repeat broadcast, making it fast consumes its battery energy, and produces broadcast storm.

Routing protocols for MANETs (cont.)

Table-driven routing protocol (proactive):
They maintain the global topology information in the

form of tables at every node. These tables are updated frequently in order to maintain consistent and accurate network state information. For example, DSDV, WRP, and STAR.

Table-driven routing protocol

Destination Sequenced Distance Vector routing (DSDV)
The DSDV routing protocol is an enhanced version of the distributed Bellman-Ford algorithm where each node maintain a table that contain the shortest distance and the first node on the shortest path to every other node in the network.

Table-driven routing protocol DSDV (cont.)

Example:
15 14 13 11 12

Routing table for Node 1

Dest 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 NextNode 2 2 5 5 6 2 5 2 6 6 5 5 6 5 Dist 1 2 2 1 1 3 3 4 2 3 3 4 3 4 seqNo 22 26 32 134 144 162 170 186 142 176 190 198 214 256

10

6 4 5 7

3 1 2

Table-driven routing protocol DSDV (cont.)

Each node, upon receiving an update, quickly disseminates it to its neighbors in order to propagate the broken-link information to the whole network. Thus a single link break leads to the propagation of

table update information to the whole network.

Table-driven routing protocol DSDV (cont.)

Routing table for Node 1
15 14 13 11 12

10 8 9

6 4 5 7

3 1 2

Dest NextNode 2 2 3 2 4 5 5 5 6 6 7 2 8 5 9 2 10 6 11 5 12 5 13 5 14 6 15 5

Dist 1 2 2 1 1 3 3 4 2 4 3 4 3 4

seqNo 22 26 32 134 144 162 170 186 142 180 190 198 214 256

Table-driven routing protocol DSDV (cont.)

Advantage

It can be applied to MANETs with few modifications. The updates are propagated throughout the network in order to maintain an up-to-date view of the network topology at all the nodes.

Table-driven routing protocol DSDV (cont.)

Disadvantage (1) The DSDV suffers from excessive control overhead that is proportional to the number of nodes in the network and therefore is not scalable in MANETs, which have limited bandwidth and whose topologies are highly dynamic.

Table-driven routing protocol DSDV (cont.)

(2) In order to obtain information about a particular destination node, a node has to wait for a table update message initiated by the same destination node. This delay could result in stale routing

information at nodes.

Routing protocols for MANETs (cont.)

On-demand routing protocol (reactive):
They execute the path-finding process and exchange routing information only when a path is required by a node to communicate with a destination. For example, AODV and DSR.

On-demand routing protocol

Ah-hoc On-demand Distance-Vector Routing Protocol (AODV)

AODV, a route is established only when it is required by a source node for transmitting data packets. In AODV, the source node and intermediate nodes store the next-hop information corresponding to each flow for data packet transmission.

On-demand routing protocol AODV (cont.)

The major difference between AODV and other ondemand routing protocol is that it uses a destination

sequence number ( DestSeqNum) to determine an upto-date path to the destination.

A node updates its path information only if the DestSeqNum of the current packet received is greater than the last DestSeqNum stored at the node.

On-demand routing protocol AODV (cont.)

AODV utilizes routing tables to store routing information. The routing table stores:

destination addr

next-hop addr

destination sequence

hop count

life time

The AODV routing procedure

1. If a node wants to send a packet to some destination. At first, it checks its routing table to determine whether it has a current route to the destination or not. =>If yes, it forwards the packet to next hop node of the route. =>If no, it initiates a route discovery process.

The AODV routing procedure (cont.)

The Route discovery process: It begins with the creation of a RouteRequest (RREQ) packet. Broadcasting is done via flooding. Broadcast ID gets incremented each time a source node uses RREQ. Broadcast ID and source IP address form a unique identifier for the RREQ.
Type
RREQ packet format

Reserved Hop Count

Broadcast ID Destination IP Address

Destination Sequence Number Source IP Address Source Sequence Number Time Stamp

The AODV routing procedure (cont.)

2. Sender S broadcasts a RREQ to all its neighbors, each node receiving RREQ forwards RREQ to its neighbors.
*Sequence numbers help to avoid the possibility of forwarding the same packet more than once.

3. An intermediate node (not the destination) may also send a RouteReply (RREP) packet provided that it knows a more recent path than the one previously known to sender S.
Type
RREP packet format

Reserved

Hop Count

Destination IP Address Destination Sequence Number Source IP Address Life Time

The AODV routing procedure (cont.)

4. As an intermediate node receives the RREP packet,

it sets up a forward path entry to the destination in its routing table.

5. The source node can begin data transmission upon receiving the first RREP.

Illustration of route establishment in AODV

1. Node S needs a routing path to node D. 2. Node S creates a RREQ packet

RREQ [Ds IP addr, seq#, Ss IP addr, seq#, hopcount]

Node S broadcasts RREQ to its neighbors.
B RREQ{D, Dseq, S, Sseq, 0} S A D C

Illustration of route establishment in AODV (cont.)

2. Node A rebroadcasts RREQ to all its neighbors.

RREQ{D, Dseq, S, Sseq, 1}

A D

RREQ{D, Dseq, S, Sseq, 1}

Illustration of route establishment in AODV (cont.)

3. Since, node C known a route to D. Node C creates a RREP packet and unicasts RREP to A. Set forward path in node Cs routing table.
B

RREP{D, Dseq, S, Sseq, 1} D C

Cs Routing table
dest D nexthop D hopcount 1

Illustration of route establishment in AODV (cont.)

3. Node A creates a RREP packet and unicasts RREP to S. 4. Set forward path in node As routing table.
As Routing table
dest D S RREP{D, Dseq, S, Sseq, 2} C nexthop C A D hopcount 2

Cs Routing table
dest D nexthop D hopcount 1

Illustration of route establishment in AODV (cont.)

4. Set forward path in node Ss routing table.
As Routing table
dest D S nexthop C A D C hopcount 2

Ss Routing table
dest D nexthop A hopcount 3 dest D

Cs Routing table
nexthop D hopcount 1

Route maintenance in AODV (Path broken due to host mobility) 1. If intermediate nodes or the destination move. The next hop links break. Routing tables are updated for the link failures. All active neighbors are informed by RouteError (RRER) packet. 2. When a source node receives an RRER, it can reinitiate the route discovery process. 3. It can be also dealt with by a local fix scheme.

Illustration of route maintenance in AODV

Assume link between C and D breaks. Node C invalidates route to D in route table. Node C creates RRER packet and sends to its upstream

neighbors. Node A sends RRER to S. Node S rediscovers route if still needed.

B RRER S A RRER C D

On-demand routing protocol AODV (cont.)

Advantage: The routes are established on demand and the destination sequence number can find the latest route to the destination.

Disadvantage: The intermediate nodes can lead to inconsistent routes if the source sequence number is very old. The periodic beaconing leads to unnecessary bandwidth consumption.

On-demand routing protocol Dynamic Source Routing Protocol (DSR)

DSR designed to restrict the bandwidth consumed

by control packets in ad hoc wireless networks by eliminating the periodic table-update messages required in the table-driven approach.

Route Discovery (broadcasting the RREQ packets)

2 <1> <1> Source <1,2> 5 7 <1,3,5> 8 <1,3,5,7>

Destination

1
<1>

<1,3> 3 6 4 <1,4,6>

<1,4>

Route Discovery (cont.) (propagating the RREP packets back to source)

7 2 <1,3,5, 7>

5
8

<1,3,5, 7>
Source 1 3 6 <1,4,6> 4 <1,4,6>

Destination
<1,4,6>

Hybrid routing protocol

Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)
A hybrid routing protocol which effectively combines the best features of both proactive and reactive routing protocols.
The key concept employed in ZRP is to use a proactive routing scheme within a limited zone in the -hop neighborhood of every node, and use a reactive routing scheme for nodes beyond this zone.

Routing zone for node 8 in ZRP

15 14 13 11 12

10

6 4 5

Routing Zone with Radius = 1

3

Routing Zone with Radius = 2 Routing Zone for Node 8

Performing the Proactive Routing for node 8 (destination=node 16)

15 14 13 11

12 10
8

16

9
6 5 4 7

RouteRequest

RouteReply
1
2 3

Routing Zone for Node8

Routing Zone with Radius = 2

Hybrid routing protocol ZRP (cont.)

Advantage: By combining the best features of proactive and reactive routing schemes, ZRP reduces the control overhead. Disadvantage: But in the absence of a query control, ZRP tends to produce higher control overhead than the previously schemes.

Other routing issue for MANET

The Intermittent connected routing problem
In case of the nodes density of a MANET is sparse, it will cause the intermittent connected routing problem, and consequently the traditional routing protocols will be no longer fit.

Intermittent connected routing problem

Epidemic routing protocol

Epidemic is a simple routing protocol to resolve the intermittent connected routing problem.
The nodes adopt store-carry-forward communication scheme.
A node can carry the messages in its cache if no any direct

routing path to the destination is available. If a node moves into the nodes transmission range, they will exchange the carried messages between them.

4 1

(Epidemic routing)
S

Routing protocols for wireless networks WSNs

A sensor network is composed of a large number of

multifunctional and small sensor nodes.

WSN allows random deployment in inaccessible

terrains or disaster relief operations.

Sensor nodes are fitted with an onboard processor, it

consists of sensing, data processing, and communicating components.

Introduction to WSNs -- Communication architecture

Sensor field

User Sink Internet or satelite Task manager node

Introduction to WSNs -- Communication architecture (cont.)

Satelite

Sink

Introduction to WSNs -- Communication architecture (cont.)

The sensor nodes are usually scattered in a sensor

field.
Sensor nodes can collect data and route data back to

sink.
The sink may communicate with the task manager

node via Internet or Satellite.

Introduction to WSNs -- Applications

Military applications

Environmental applications

Home applications
Applications

Health applications
55

Other commercial applications

Introduction to WSNs
The differences between WSNs and ad-hoc networks
The number of sensor nodes in a sensor network

can be several orders of magnitude higher.

Sensor nodes are densely deployed.
Sensor nodes are prone to failures.
Sensor nodes are limited in power, computational

capacities, and memory.

Introduction to WSNs
The differences between WSNs and ad-hoc networks (cont.)
Sensor nodes mainly use a broadcast communication

paradigm, whereas most ad hoc networks are based on point-to-point communications.

Sensor nodes may not have global identification (ID)

because of the large amount of overhead and large number of sensors.

Introduction to WSNs Sensor node

Introduction to WSNs Sensor node (cont.)

Aqua node

Introduction to WSNs Sensor node (cont.)

Aqua node

Introduction to WSNs Sensor node (cont.)

Sensing Unit

Processing Unit Processor

Transmission Unit

Sensor

ADC Storage

Transceiver

Power Unit

Mobilizer

Location Finding System

Power Generator

Introduction to WSNs Design factors

Production costs The cost of each sensor node should be much less

than US $1 in order for the sensor network to be feasible.

Transmission media In a multi-hop sensor network, communicating

nodes are linked by radio, infrared or optical media.

Introduction to WSNs Design factors (cont.)

Environment Sensor network usually work unattended in remote

geographic areas, such as large machinery, ocean, biologically and chemically contaminated field.
Hardware A sensor node is made up of four basic components:

sensing unit, processing unit, transceiver unit, power unit, and also have additional applicationdependent components.

Introduction to WSNs Network deployment

Three phases of WSNs deployment Pre-deployment phase Sensor nodes can be either thrown in mass

or placed one by one in the sensor field.

Post-deployment phase After deployment, topology changes are

due to change in sensor nodes Position available energy malfunctioning

Introduction to WSNs Network deployment (cont.)

Re-deployment phase Additional sensor nodes can be re-deployed at

any time to replace the malfunctioning nodes or due to changes in task dynamics.
Addition of new nodes poses a need to re-

organize the network.

Introduction to WSNs Routing challenges and design

issues
Node deployment In manual deployment, the sensors are

manually placed and data is routed through predetermined paths.

Energy consumption without losing accuracy Sensor nodes can use up their limited energy

performing computations and transmitting information.

Introduction to WSNs Routing challenges and design

issues (cont.)
Data reporting method Data reporting can be categorized as either time-

driven, event-driven, query-driven, or a hybrid.

The time-driven method is suitable for

applications that require periodic data.

Event-driven and query-driven methods, sensor

nodes react immediately to sudden and drastic changes in the value of a sensed attribute

Introduction to WSNs Routing challenges and design

issues (cont.)
Coverage A given sensors view of the environment is

limited in both range and accuracy. Area coverage is an important design parameter.
Quality of service Bounded latency for data delivery is another

condition for time-constrained applications. As energy is depleted, the network may be required to reduce the quality of results in order to reduce energy dissipation.

Routing protocols for WSNs (cont.)

Flat-based All nodes are typically assigned equal roles or

functionality.
Hierarchical-based Nodes will play different roles in the network.
Location-based Sensor nodes positions are exploited to route

data in the network.

Routing protocols for WSNs (cont.)

Flat-based routing
Each node typically plays the same role and

sensor nodes collaborate to perform the sensing task.

This consideration has led to data-centric routing,

where the BS sends queries to certain regions and waits for data from the sensors located in the selected regions.
Early work on data centric routing were shown to

save energy through data negotiation and elimination of redundant data.

Flat-based routing example

SPIN (Sensor Protocols for Information via Negotiation)

ADV

REQ

DATA

1. 2. 3. 4.

DATA REQ (ADV). Data is ADV described by meta-message Send ADV to neighbors. If neighbor do not have the data, sends REQ; otherwise, do nothing. As the REQ received by sender, then it sends the data to the neighbor.

Flat-based routing example

SPIN (cont.)
Advantage Each node only needs to know its one-hop

neighbors.
Disadvantage Data advertisement cannot guarantee the

delivery of data.

Routing protocols for WSNs (cont.) Hierarchical-based routing

Hierarchical routing is two-layer routing where one

layer is used to select cluster heads and the other for routing.
Higher-energy nodes can be used to process and send

the information, while low-energy nodes can be used to perform the sensing in the proximity of the target.
The creation of clusters and assigning special tasks to

cluster heads can greatly contribute to overall system scalability, lifetime, and energy efficiency.

 Proactive clustering.

Node transmits sensed data only if both of the following

conditions hold: 1. The sensed value is greater than a Hard Threshold. 2. The sensed value differs from last transmitted value by more than a Soft Threshold.

Hierarchical-based routing example

TEEN (Threshold-Sensitive Energy Efficient Sensor Network Protocol)
S Sink

Cluster

Node 1st cluster head 2nd cluster head

Hierarchical-based routing example

TEEN (cont.)

Advantage Good for time-critical applications. Disadvantage Inappropriate for periodic monitoring,

e.g., habitat monitoring. Ambiguity between packet loss and unimportant data.

Routing compare
Hierarchical-based routing Reservation-based scheduling Collisions avoided
Reduced duty cycle due to periodic sleeping Data aggregation by cluster head Simple but non-optimal routing Requires global and local synchronization Overhead of cluster formation throughout the network

Flat-based routing Contention-based scheduling Collision overhead present

Variable duty cycle by controlling sleep time of nodes Node on multi-hop path aggregates incoming data from neighbors Routing can be made optimal but with an added complexity Links formed on the fly without synchronization Routes formed only in regions that have data for transmission

Lower latency as multiple hops network formed by cluster heads always available

Latency in waking up intermediate nodes and setting up the multipath

Routing protocols for WSNs (cont.) Location-based routing

The location of nodes may be available directly by

communicating with a satellite using GPS if nodes are equipped with a small low-power GPS receiver.
Relative coordinates of neighboring nodes can be

obtained by exchanging such information between neighbors.

To save energy, some location-based schemes

demand that nodes should go to sleep if there is no activity.

Routing protocols for wireless networks VANETs

Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANET) is a special case of

MANET.
The direct communication between vehicular using Ad

hoc network.

Introduction to VANETs
Applications in a VANET fall into two categories comfort applications safety applications Comfort applications aim to improve the driving comfort

and the efficiency of the transportation system

on-board Internet access high data rate content download driving through payment

Introduction to VANETs (cont.)

Safety applications aim to provide drivers information

about future critical situations

inter-vehicle danger warning intersection collision avoidance work zone safety warning

Safety applications

Introduction to VANETs (cont.)

VANETs provide the following three communications: Inter-Vehicle Communication (IVC) Roadside-to-Vehicle Communication (RVC) Hybrid-Vehicular Communication (HVC)

V2R

Emergency Event

V2V RSU

Introduction to VANETs (cont.)

Vehicles mobility is restricted to one-dimensional road

geometry. Factors affect the mobility of vehicles such as

road configuration traffic laws safety limits physical limits

Introduction to VANETs (cont.)

Vehicle mobility creates a highly dynamic topology. VANETs are potentially large-scale networks. Vehicles can provide more resources than other types of

mobile networks such as

large batteries

antennas
processing power

Introduction to VANETs (cont.)

The connectivity of the network is affected by factors that

include
transmitter power environmental conditions obstacles mobility

Introduction to VANETs (cont.)

Factors such as the vast number of nodes that lack

inherent organization, as well as

frequent topological changes

Routing for VANETs

To enhance the safety of drivers To provide the comfortable driving environment The message for different purpose need to be sent to

vehicles through the inter-vehicle communications.

Unicast routing

Multicast and Geocast

Broadcast

Routing for VANETs -- Unicast

Unicast routing is a fundamental operation for vehicle to

construct a source-to-destination routing in a VANET

From Reference 1.

Routing for VANETs -- Unicast

Routing objective:

Min-Delay
The goal of min-delay routing protocols is to transmit

data packets to destination as soon as possible. Relative routing protocolsVADDCARDIR

Unicast routing example for VANETs

Vehicle-Assisted Data Delivery (VADD)

Carry-and-forward for data delivery from a moving

vehicle to a static destination. VADD is to select a forwarding path with the smallest packet delivery delay.

Unicast routing example for VANETs

The VADD (cont.)

Disconnected due to sparse

Two Paths (1) Ia => Ic => Id => Ib (2) Ia => Ib Delayacdb < Delayab

Unicast routing example for VANETs

The VADD (cont.)

1. Transmit through wireless channels as much as possible.

2. If the packet has to be carried through certain roads, the

road with higher speed should be chosen.

Unicast routing example for VANETs

The VADD (cont.)

3. Due to the unpredictable nature of vehicular ad-hoc

networks, so dynamic path selection should continuously be executed throughout the packet forwarding process.

The routing cannot expect the packet to be successfully routed along the pre-computed optimal path

Unicast routing example for VANETs

Connectivity-Aware Routing (CAR)

To overcome the limitation of the static destination.

The CAR protocol establishes a routing path from source

to destination by setting the anchor points at intermediate junctions.

Unicast routing example for VANETs

The CAR (cont.)

CAR protocol sends the searching packets to find the

destination.
Each forwarding vehicle records its ID, hop count, and

average number of neighbors in searching packets.

Once the searching packets reach the destination, the

destination chooses a routing path with the minimum delivery delay time and replies it to the source.

Unicast routing example for VANETs

The CAR (cont.)

While destination sends the reply packet to the source, the

junctions passed through by the reply packet are set as the anchor point.
After the path set up, data packets are forwarded in a

greedy forwarding.
D

Greedy forwarding example: x: the current message holder. Assume y is the closest neighbor of x to D, then x sends the message to y.

Unicast routing example for VANETs

An example for CAR (cont.)

Vehicle VS tries to send data to vehicle VD, the anchor

points are set at I1,1, I2,1, I2,2, I3,2, I3,3, and I3,4.
Data is forwarded according to order in the list of

anchor points.

Unicast routing example for VANETs

Diagonal-Intersection-based Routing (DIR)

To improve the CAR protocol. DIR protocol constructs a series of diagonal intersections

between the source and destination vehicles.

Auto-adjustability is achieved that one sub-path with low

data packet delay, between two neighboring diagonal intersections, is dynamically selected to forward data packets.

Unicast routing example for VANETs

The DIR (cont.)

To reduce the data packet delay, the route is automatically

re-routed by the selected sub-path with lowest delay.

DIR protocol constructs a series of diagonal intersections

between vehicles VS and VD.

Unicast routing example for VANETs

The comparisons between CAR and DIR

DIR protocol may set the fewer number of anchors than

CAR protocol.
DIR protocol can automatically adjust routing path for

keeping the lower packet delay, compared to CAR protocol.

Routing for VANETs Multicast and Geocast

Multicast is defined by delivering multicast packets from

a single source vehicle to all multicast members by multihop communication.

Geocast routing is to deliver a geocast packet to a specific

geographic region.

Geocast Routing

Broadcast routing for VANETs

Broadcast protocol is utilized for a source vehicle sends

broadcast message to all other vehicles in the network.

Routing protocol typeBroadcast methods for V2V

communication

Advertisement Publicity Broadcast

Broadcast outing for VANETs (cont.)

The purpose of emergency information is to announce an

urgent event by broadcasting for surrounding vehicles.

emergency-vehicle-approach traffic accident information dissemination

Broadcast routing for VANETs (cont.)

Emergency-vehicle-approach Emergency-vehicle-approach information is used to announce the urgent event to those vehicles in front of the current vehicle, so the emergency information is only disseminated ahead. Traffic accident information dissemination Traffic accident information is used to announce the urgent event to those vehicles behind the current vehicle, the emergency information is only disseminated behind.

Broadcast routing for VANETs

(emergency message distribution)

1. Vehicle VA broadcasts the emergency message to the

restricted direction. 2. Vehicle VD does nothing.

Broadcast routing for VANETs -emergency message distribution (cont.)

3. Vehicle VB is located in the relay range, it re-broadcasts the

emergency information. 4. Vehicle VC is located in notification range but not in relay range, VC just receives the emergency information and not to re-broadcast.

References

I. F. Akyildiz, W. Su, Y. Sankarasubramaniam, and E. Cayirci, "Wireless sensor network: a survey", Computer Networks, Vol. 38, pp. 393-422, 2002. I. F. Akyildiz, W. Su, Y. Sankarasubramaniam, and E. Cayirci, "A survey on sensor networks", IEEE Communications Magazine, Vol. 40, issue 8, pp. 102-114, Aug. 2002. J. N. Karaki, A. E. Kamal, "Routing techniques in wireless sensor networks: a survey", IEEE Wireless Communications, pp. 6-28, Dec. 2004. J. Zhao and G.Cao, VADD: vehicle-assisted data delivery in vehicular ad hoc networks, IEEE Computer Communications, pp. 1-12, 2006. V. Naumov and T. Gross, Connectivity-aware routing (CAR) in vehicular ad hoc Networks, in Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Computer Communications, pp.1919-1927, 2007. Y. W. Lin, Y. S. Chen and S. L. Lee, Routing protocols in vehicular ad hoc networks: a survey and future perspectives, Journal of Information Science and Engineering 26, pp.1-20, 2010.

References

M. S. Bouassida and M. Shawky, A cooperative congestion control approach within VANETs : formal verification and performance evaluation, EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking, Vol. 2010, 2010. http://commonsense.epfl.ch/COMMONSense/description.htm http://groups.csail.mit.edu/drl/wiki/index.php/AMOUR_(Autonomous_Modula r_Optical_Underwater_Robot) http://russnelson.com/wisan/Sensor-node-front.jpg http://www.ece.ncsu.edu/wireless/Images/sensor.gif http://blogs.iium.edu.my/jaiz/2008/12/22/what-is-vehicular-network/