Dr.

Niranjan Murthy H L
Asst Prof of Physiology
prosencephalon

rhombencephalon
• Two hemispheres
• Separated by falx cerebri
• Interconnected by corpus callosum
• Three poles
• Three surfaces
• Five lobes
• Outer gray matter & inner white matter
 Cerebral cortex
• It has 25 billion neurons, 62,000 miles of
axons and 300,000,000,000,000 synapses
• 2-4mm thick
• 2200 sq cm
• Gyri and sulci
• Important sulci- Central (Rolandic) sulcus,
Lateral (Sylvian) sulcus, Parieto-occipital
sulcus, Calcarine sulcus
• Brodmann- 47 Brodmann areas
• Area 4- Primary motor area- Precentral gyrus
• Area 3,1,2- Primary sensory area- Postcentral
gyrus
• Area 6, 8-13, 24, 32, 44-47 – Frontal association
area
• Area 41- Primary auditory area
• Area 20, 21, 22- Auditory association areas
• Area 5, 7- Sensory association areas
• Area 40- Stereognosis area
• Area 17- Primary visual area
• Area 18, 19- Visual association areas
 Cytoarchitecture of cortex
• 6 layered- Neocortex
• < 6layers- Allocortex/Juxtallocortex
Layer I: Molecular or Plexiform layer
Horizontal spread of neuronal activity
Layer II: External Granular Layer
Small fusiform cells
Afferents from layer IV and efferents to
layers V & VI
Layer III: External Pyramidal Layer
Large cells
Afferents from layer IV, V & VI
Efferents to Layer V & VI

Layer IV: Inner Granular Layer

Stellate cells
Receive thalamocortical afferents
Characteristic of sensory areas
Layer V: Inner Pyramidal Layer
Giant cells of Betz
Characteristic of area 4

Layer VI: Fusiform Layer

Spindle shaped cells
Axons project to subcortical nuclei
• Layer IV receives sensory inputs
• Layers I & II receive non-specific input
from lower brain centers and maintain
overall excitability of cortex
• Layers II & III send axons to opposite
cortex via corpus callosum
• Layer V send axons to basal ganglia, brain
stem and spinal cord
• Layer VI send axons to thalamus and help
to control the overall level of excitability of
incoming sensory signals
 Cortical fibers
• Afferents:
2. Specific thalamocortical fibers
3. Non-specific thalamocortical fibers
4. Association fibers
5. Commissural fibers
6. Projection fibers
• Efferents:
8. Pyramidal cell axons of layers V & VI give rise
to projection, commissural and association
fibers
9. Neurons of layers II & IV connect horizontally
 Cerebral lobes
• Parietal lobe
• Frontal lobe
• Temporal lobe
• Occipital lobe
• Limbic lobe
 Parietal lobe
• Lies between central,
parieto-occipital & lateral
sulci.

• Major areas-
(1) Somatosensory area I
(2) Somatosensory area II
(3) Area 5 & 7
(4) Area 40
(1) Somatosensory Area I
 Postcentral gyrus
 Areas 3,1,2
 Afferents from opposite side of body
and both sides of face
 Sensory homunculus (little man)
Removal- causes loss of fine touch &
position sense and deficits in
discrimination of size and shape.
(2) Somatosensory Area II:
Mostly buried in superior wall of Sylvian fissure
Afferents from both sides of body
Removal cause deficits of discrimination power
(3) Sensory Association Area ( Areas 5 & 7)
Located behind S I
Inputs from S I, ventrobasal nucleus of
thalamus, visual and auditory cortex.
Removal causes amorphosynthesis
Bilateral removal causes constructional
apraxia and loss of spatial orientation

(4) Area 40- Stereognosis Area

 Located in supramarginal gyrus
 Functions of Parietal lobe
• Appreciation of primary senses
• Discrimination of stimuli
• Stereognosis
• Recognition of spatial relationship
• Integration of general, auditory and visual
sensory signals
 Applied Aspects
Parietal Lobectomy
 Perception of fine touch & proprioception are
most affected
 Loss of tactile localization & discrimination
 Sensory Ataxia
 Amorphosynthesis
 Constructional apraxia
 Aschematia
Frontal Lobe
• Lies in front of
central sulcus

• Major areas-
Motor cortex and
prefrontal areas
• Primary Motor Area:
Area 4
Precentral gyrus
Motor homunculus
Face, pharynx, vocal
cords and respiratory
muscles have
bilateral
representation
• Supplementary motor area medially
beyond the margin of central sulcus over
medial surface
• It is concerned with complex movements
involving planning
• Premotor Area: Area 6
Located anterior to motor cortex
Topography is same as motor cortex
Postural movements to assist specific
tasks
Anterior part develops motor image and
send signals to posterior part or primary
motor cortex.
• Frontal eye field: Area 8
Lies anterior to premotor area
Stimulation causes conjugate deviation of
eyes to opposite side
• Suppressor Areas: Areas 4s, 2s, 8s, 19s &
24s
Inhibition of stretch reflex
Projects to basal ganglia also
 Prefrontal Lobe
• Lies anterior to motor areas 4, 6 & 8.
• Major areas are 9-13, 24, 32 and 44-47.
• Silent area/organ of mind
Connections:
Afferents-
Fibers from dorsomedial nucleus of thalamus
project to areas 9-12 and 44-47. Dorsomedial
nucleus receives afferents from hypothalamus
Fibers from anterior nucleus of thalamus projects
to area 24. It forms a part of Papez circuit
Efferents-
Areas 24s and 8s project to caudate
Frontopontine tract from area10
Coritcotegmental tract from area 8
Projections from areas 9 & 10 to
tegmental reticular formation and anterior
& ventral thalamic nuclei
Intercortical connections-
Fronto-occipital projection (visual agnosia)
Fibers form areas 44-47 and area 18 pass
to temporal lobe
Functions of Prefrontal lobe:
Connections with thalamus, hypothalamus &
other areas of cortex
3. Control of ANS
4. Control of personality
5. Control of emotional affects
6. Control of behaviour & social
consciousness
7. Responsible for resting EEG
Experimental studies:
Ablation-
3. Alteration of activity
Initially there is apathy followed by
hyperactivity
Sham rage
6. Alteration in emotional exteriorization
-Experimental neurosis – discrimination of
weights
-removal of areas 3,1,2 – rage
-removal of area 24 – abolishing of rage
3. Alterations in social behaviour
Removal of anterior cingulate gyrus
abolished moral sense of right or wrong
Loss of shyness and fear
4. Impairment of memory
5. Impairment of learning and intellectual
functions
Electrical stimulation-
Changes in autonomic activity
 Applied aspects
Prefrontal lobectomy:
Bilateral lobectomy cause impaired social
behaviour & loss of emotional control.
Prefrontal leucotomy:
Cutting of connections between thalamus and
prefrontal lobe
Frontal lobe syndrome- flight of ideas, memory
impairment, euphoria, restlessness, loss of
morality, emotional instability
 Temporal lobe

• Lies below lateral

sulcus
• Primary auditory
area- Area 41
• Auditory
association area-
Areas 20,21,22
• Wernicke’s area-
Area 22
Functions:
2. Perception and processing auditory
signals
3. Sense of equilibrium in posterior part of
superior temporal gyrus
4. Language and memory
5. Wernicke’s area is associated in
interpretation and understanding of
auditory & visual signals
 Applied aspects
• Klűver-Bucy syndrome (bilateral
temporal lobectomy):
2. Obedient, hyperphagic (omniphagia) &
hypersexual
3. Loss of fear
4. Visual agnosia
5. Oral exploration
6. Hyper-metamorphosis
 Occipital lobe
• Lies posterior to parieto occipital sulcus
• Areas 17, 18, 19
• Primary visual and visual association
areas
 Limbic lobe
• Works in close association with
hypothalamus
• Concerned with emotions and memory