Unit 1 Concept of Measurement

Syllabus
General concept Generalized measurement system-Units and standards-measuring

instruments- sensitivity, readability, range of accuracy, precision-static and dynamic response repeatability- systematic and random errorscorrection, calibration, interchangeability

Definition
Metrology is the name given to the science of pure measurement. Engineering Metrology is restricted to measurements of length & angle Measurement is defined as the process of numerical evaluation of a dimension or the process of comparison with standard measuring instruments

Why measure things?

Check quality? Check tolerances? Allow statistical process control (SPC)?

TYPES OF METROLOGY

Legal metrology Dynamic metrology Deterministic metrology

Need of Measurement
Establish standard Interchange ability Customer Satisfaction Validate the design Physical parameter into meaningful number True dimension Evaluate the Performance

METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS

Direct method
Measurements are directly obtained
Ex: Vernier Caliper, Scales

Indirect method
Obtained by measuring other quantities
Ex : Weight = Length x Breadth x Height x Density

Comparative Method
Its compared with other known value
Ex: Comparators

Coincidence method Measurements coincide with certain lines and signals Fundamental method Measuring a quantity directly in related with the definition of that quantity Contact method Sensor/Measuring tip touch the surface area

Complementary method The value of quantity to be measured is combined with known value of the same quantity
Ex:Volume determination by liquid displacement

Deflection method
The value to be measured is directly indicated by a deflection of pointer
Ex: Pressure Measurement

GENERALIZED MEASURING SYSTEM

Common elements of system

Primary sensing element Variable conversion element Variable manipulation element Data transmission element Data processing element Data presentation element

Primary sensing element

Variable conversion element

Variable manipulation element Temperature

Data transmission element

Observer
Data presentation element Data processing element

Units and standards

SI: fundamental Units

Physical Quantity Unit Name Symbol

length mass

meter kilogram

m kg

time
electric current

second
ampere

s
A

temperature
amount of substance luminous intensity

Kelvin
mole candela

K
mol cd

SI: Derived Units

Physical Quantity Unit Name Symbol

area

square meter

m2

volume
speed
acceleration

cubic meter
meter per second
meter per second squared

m3
m/s
m/s2

weight, force

newton

pressure
energy, work

pascal
joule

Pa
J

Supplementary units

Physical Quantity

Unit Name

Symbol

Plane angle Solid angle

Radian Steradian

rad

sr

Standards
International standards Primary standards Secondary standards

Working standards

International
International Organization of Legal Metrology, Paris International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres, France

India
National Physical Laboratory Dr. K.S. Krishnan Marg New Delhi - 110012 India Phone: 91-11-45609212 Fax: 91-11-45609310 Email: root@nplindia.org or root@nplindia.ernet.in

Measuring Instruments
Deflection and null type instruments Analog and digital instruments Active and passive instruments Automatic and manually operated instruments Contacting and non contacting instruments Absolute and secondary instruments Intelligent instruments.

DEFLECTION AND NULL TYPE

Physical effect generated by the measuring quantity Equivalent opposing effect to nullify the physical effect caused by the quantity

ANALOG AND DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS

Physical variables of interest in the form of continuous or stepless variations Physical variables are represented by digital quantities

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE INSTRUMENTS

Instruments are those that require some source of auxiliary power The energy requirements of the instruments are met entirely from the input signal

Automatic and manually operated

Manually operated requires the service of human operator Automated doesn't requires human operator

Contacting And Non Contacting Instruments

A contacting with measuring medium Measure the desired input even though they are not in close contact with the measuring medium

Absolute and Secondary Instruments

These instruments give the value of the electrical quantity in terms of absolute quantities Deflection of the instruments can read directly

Intelligent instruments
Microprocessors are incorporated with measuring instruments

Characteristics of Measuring Instrument

Sensitivity Readability Range of accuracy Precision

Definition
Sensitivity- Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of response (output signal) to the magnitude of the quantity being measured (input signal) Readability- Readability is defined as the closeness with which the scale of the analog instrument can be read

Definition
Range of accuracy- Accuracy of a measuring

system is defined as the closeness of the

instrument output to the true value of the

measured quantity
Precision- Precision is defined as the ability of the

instrument to reproduce a certain set of readings

within a given accuracy

Sensitivity
If the calibration curve is liner, as shown, the sensitivity of the instrument is the slope of the calibration curve. If the calibration curve is not linear as shown, then the sensitivity varies with the input.

Sensitivity
This is the relationship between a change in the output reading for a given change of the input. (This relationship may be linear or non-linear.)

Sensitivity is often known as scale factor or instrument magnification and an instrument with a large sensitivity (scale factor) will indicate a large movement of the indicator for a small input change.

Force, F

Output, Vo (V)

Load Cell

Output, Vo

Slope = 5 V/kN

Input, Fi (kN)

Block Diagram:

Input, F (kN) K

Output, Vo (V)

Sensitivity, K = 5 V/kN

Example
(1) A 0.01 W/A meter with 5 A fsd, Rm = W/A x A = 0.01 x 5 = 0.05 W Vmax across the Meter will be = 5 A x 0.05 W = 0.25 V for fsd. (2) A 0.1 W/A meter with 5 A fsd,will drop 2.5 V (i.e., it is 10 times less sensitive), which may bias the results

Readability
Readability is defined as the ease with which

readings may be taken with an instrument.

Readability difficulties may often occur due to

parallax errors when an observer is noting the position of a pointer on a calibrated scale

Readability
What is the value ?

What is the value ?

What is the value ?

Accuracy
Accuracy = the extent to which a measured value agrees with a true value The difference between the measured value & the true value is known as Error of measurement Accuracy is the quality of conformity

Example: Accuracy
Who is more accurate when measuring a book that has a true length of 17.0 cm? A: 17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm B :: 15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm

Precision
The precision of a measurement depends on the instrument used to measure it. For example, how long is this block?

Example: Precision
Who is more precise when measuring the same 17.0 cm book? A: 17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm B :: 15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm

Accuracy vs. Precision

High Accuracy High Precision High Precision Low Accuracy

The person hit the bull's-eye?

Three targets with three arrows each to shoot.
How do they compare? Both accurate and precise Precise but not accurate Neither accurate nor precise

Can you define accuracy vs. precision?

REPORTING RESULTS
Executive Summary
Laboratory Note Or Technical Memo

Progress Report
Full Technical Report Technical Paper

Uncertainty
The word uncertainty casts a doubt about the exactness of the measurement results True value = Estimated value + Uncertainty

Why Is There Uncertainty?

Measurements are performed with instruments, and no instrument can read to an infinite number of decimal places Which of the instruments below has the greatest uncertainty in measurement?

Reading a Meterstick
. l2. . . . I . . . . I3 . . . .I . . . . I4. .
First digit (known) Second digit (known) Length reported = 2 = 0.7 =

cm

2.?? cm 2.7? cm 0.05- 0.08 cm 2.77 cm

Third digit (estimated) between

or
or

2.76 cm
2.78 cm

Known + Estimated Digits

In 2.77 cm
Known digits 2 and 7 are 100% certain The third digit 7 is estimated (uncertain) In the reported length, all three digits (2.77 cm) are significant including the estimated one

Performance of Instruments
All instrumentation systems are characterized by the system characteristics or system response There are two basic characteristics of Measuring instruments, they are
Static character Dynamic character

Static Characteristics
The instruments, which are used to measure the quantities which are slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary with time, is called static characteristics.

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INSTRUMENTS

Accuracy Dead zone

Precision
Sensitivity Resolution Threshold Drift

Backlash
True value Hysteresis Linearity Range or Span

Error
Repeatability

Bias
Tolerance

Reproducibility

Stability

Resolution
This is defined as the smallest input increment change that gives some small but definite numerical change in the output.

Threshold
This minimum value of input below which no output can be appeared is known as threshold of the instrument.

Output

input

Drift
Drift or Zero drift is variation in the output of an instrument which is not caused by any change in the input; it is commonly caused by internal temperature changes and component instability.

Sensitivity drift defines the amount by which instruments sensitivity varies as ambient conditions change.

Output

Output

sensitivity drift zero drift input sensitivity drift input

Output

zero drift input

 Error The deviation of the true value from the desired value is called Error Repeatability It is the closeness value of same output for same input under same operating condition Reproducibility - It is the closeness value of same output for same input under same operating condition over a period of time

Range
The Range is the total range of values which an instrument is capable of measuring.

Hysteresis
This is the algebraic difference between the average errors at corresponding points of measurement when approached from opposite directions, i.e. increasing as opposed to decreasing values of the input.
Measured Value

Ideal

Actual/ Input Value

Hysteresis is caused by energy storage/ dissipation in the system.

Zero stability
The ability of the instrument to return to zero reading after the measured has returned to zero

Dead band
This is the range of different input values over which there is no change in output value.

Linearity-

The ability to reproduce the input characteristics symmetrically and linearly

 Backlash Lost motion or free play of

mechanical elements are known as backlash

True value The errorless value of measured

variable is known as true value Bias The Constant Error Tolerance- Maximum Allowable error in Measurement

Dynamic Characteristics
The set of criteria defined for the

instruments, which are changes rapidly with time, is called dynamic characteristics.

Dynamic Characteristics
Steady state periodic Transient Speed of response Measuring lag

Fidelity
Dynamic error

 Steady state periodic Magnitude has a

definite repeating time cycle Transient Magnitude whose output does not

have definite repeating time cycle

Speed of response- System responds to changes in the measured quantity

 Measuring lag
Retardation type :Begins immediately after the change in measured quantity Time delay lag : Begins after a dead time after the application of the input

Fidelity- The degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the measured quantity without error Dynamic error- Difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time & the value indicated by the measurement system

Errors in Instruments
Error = True value Measured value or Error = Measured value - True value

Types of Errors
Error of Measurement Instrumental error Error of observation Based on nature of errors

Based on control

Error of Measurement
Systematic error -Predictable way in

accordance due to conditions change Random error - Unpredictable manner Parasitic error - Incorrect execution of

measurement

Instrumental error
Error of a physical measure Error of a measuring mechanism Error of indication of a measuring instrument Error due to temperature

Error due to friction

Error due to inertia

Error of observation
Reading error Parallax error Interpolation error

Nature of Errors
Systematic error Random error

Based on control
Controllable errors
Calibration errors Environmental (Ambient /Atmospheric Condition) Errors Stylus pressure errors Avoidable errors

Non - Controllable errors

Correction
Correction is defined as a value which is added algebraically to the uncorrected result of the measurement to compensate to an assumed systematic error. Ex : Vernier Caliper, Micrometer

WHAT IS CALIBRATION?
Calibration is the process where metrology is applied to measurement equipment and processes to determine conformity with a known standard of measurement usually tracable to a national standards board

Some common standards include:

ISO 17025:2005General Requirements for Calibration Laboratories ISO 9000Quality Systems Management ISO 14000Environmental Management 21 CFR Part 210/211FDA Regulations concerning GMP (Good Manufacturing Practices) Quality Systems

PROCESS FLOW
Measurement

Data

Analysis

Information

Interchangeability
A part which can be substituted for the component manufactured to the small shape and dimensions is known a interchangeable part. The operation of substituting the part for similar manufactured components of the shape and dimensions is known as interchangeability.