The Nervous System

Medic Mesir Introduction to CNS Physiology

Introduction to the Nervous System

Learning Outcome
By the end of the lesson you should be able to Describe the transmission of impulses from senses to central nervous system and back to muscles. Describe the reflex action and the pathway of the reflex arc. Describe the function of reflex response. Describe the role of the central nervous system.

What is its function?

1. Communication and coordination
Adapt and respond to changes from both inside and outside the body

2. Site of reasoning- your brain

Name another control system????

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Neuron Types CNS (Central Nervous System) PNS (Peripheral Nervous System)

Neuron Types

Basic nerve cell structure

Fundamental Unit = typical neuron

 Neuron- basic structural unit of the nervous system Dendrites- carry impulses towards the cell Axon-carry impulses away from the cell Myelin sheath Synaptic terminal
Epinephrine Norepinephrine Acetylcholine

1)Characteristics
a) dendrites b) cell body c) axon d) terminal ending with bouton

3 main types of nerve cells

sensory neurone
Afferent

relay neurone
Interneuron

motor neurone
Efferent

Sensory neurons (Afferent)

Carries impulses from receptors e.g pain receptors in skin to the CNS( brain or spinal cord)

Relay neuron (Interneuron)

Carries impulses from sensory nerves to motor nerves.

Motor neuron (Efferent)

Carries impulses from CNS to effector e.g. muscle to bring about movement or gland to bring about secretion of hormone e.g ADH

Transmission of signals

Impulse
Neurones send messages electrochemically; this means that chemicals (ions) cause an electrical impulse. Neurones and muscle cells are electrically excitable cells, which means that they can transmit electrical nerve impulses.

2) Property of Excitability
a) ability to be stimulated b) due to electrochemical gradient (+ on the outside,- on the inside), resting potential c) Na+/K+ pump (Na+ is pumped out, K+ is pumped in but in different amounts)

3) Action potential
- transmission of an impulse/signal down neuron due to depolarization (reversal in polarity, outside becomes - compared to + inside cell), followed by repolarization propagation of action potential

Action Potential

4) Schwann Cells

cause a localized depolarization, increases speed at which impulse travels down axon forms myelin sheath

5) Communication between neurons

occurs at the synapse a) EPSP stimulates second neuron to fire b) IPSP inhibits second neuron from firing c) role of neurotransmitters vesicles contain neurotransmitters, release contents into the synaptic cleft

5) Synapse

5) Synapse

Nerves- bundles of neurons packed together in connective and fatty tissues

nervous system

CNS
Central Nervous System

Central nervous system

Brain and spinal cord

 Cerebrum-largest part of brain. Responsible for reasoning, thought, memory, speech, sensation, etc. Divided into two halves. Further divided into lobes; occipital, parietal, temporal and frontal

Refer back to this labeled version as needed

 Cerebellum-responsible for muscle coordination Brain stem- most basic functions; respiration, swallowing, blood pressure. Lower part (medulla oblongata) is continuous with spinal cord

 fMRI: functional magnetic resonance imaging Cerebral cortex of person speaking & hearing Activity (blood flow) in posterior frontal and superior temporal lobes respectively

Brain Stem
Rigidly programmed automatic behavior necessary for survival Passageway for fiber tracts running between cerebrum and spinal cord Heavily involved with innvervation of face and head (10 of the12 cranial nerves attach to it)

Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata

Hypothalamus
Below thalamus Main visceral control center
Autonomic nervous system (peripheral motor neurons controlling smooth and cardiac muscle and gland secretions): heart rate, blood pressure, gastrointestinal tract, sweat and salivary glands, etc. Emotional responses (pleasure, rage, sex drive, fear) Body temp, hunger, thirst sensations Some behaviors Regulation of sleep-wake centers: circadian rhythm (receives info on light/dark cycles from optic nerve) Control of endocrine system through pituitary gland Involved, with other sites, in formation of memory

Hypothalamus
(one example of its functioning)
Control of endocrine system through pituitary gland

Brain protection
1.Meninges 2. Cerebrospinal fluid 3. Blood brain barrier

 Spinal cord- begins at foramen magnum and ends at second lumbar vertebrae
Contains both afferent (to the brain) and efferent (motor neurons- away from the brain)

 Both the brain and spinal cord are covered by a membrane system called the meninges In addition, the brain has four hollow areas called ventricles. Cerebrospinal fluid is produced in the ventricles and baths the brain and spinal column

Blood-Brain Barrier
Tight junctions between endothelial cells of brain capillaries, instead of the usual permeability Highly selective transport mechanisms Allows nutrients, O2, CO2 Not a barrier against uncharged and lipid soluble molecules; allows alcohol, nicotine, and some drugs including anesthetics

White matter of the spinal cord

Ascending pathways: sensory information by multi-neuron chains from body up to more rostral regions of CNS
Dorsal column Spinothalamic tracts Spinocerebellar tracts

Descending pathways: motor instructions from brain to more caudal regions of the CNS
Pyramidal (corticospinal) most important to know All others (extrapyramidal)

Commissural fibers: crossing from one side of cord to the other Most pathways cross (or decussate) at some point Most synapse two or three times along the way, e.g. in brain stem, thalamus or other

Major fiber tracts in white matter of spinal cord

sensory motor

Damage: to motor areas paralysis to sensory areas - paresthesias

Major ascending pathways for the somatic senses

(thousands of nerve fibers in each) Spinocerebellar: proprioception from skeletal muscles to cerebellum of same side (dont cross) Dorsal column: discriminative touch sensation through thalamus to somatosensory cortex (cross in medulla) Spinothalamic: carries nondiscriminate sensations (pain, temp, pressure) through the thalamus to the primary somatosensory cortex (cross in spinal cord before ascending)

Some Descending Pathways

Synapse with ventral (anterior) horn interneurons

Pyramidal tracts: Lateral corticospinal cross in pyramids of medulla; voluntary motor to limb muscles Ventral (anterior) corticospinal cross at spinal cord; voluntary to axial muscles Extrapyramidal tracts: one example

PNS
Peripheral Nervous System

Functional Organization of the PNS

Figure 14.1

The Peripheral Nervous System

Nervous structures outside the brain and spinal cord Nerves allow the CNS to receive information and take action Functional components of the PNS
Sensory inputs and motor outputs
Categorized as somatic or visceral

Sensory inputs also classified as general or special

Basic Structural Components of the PNS

Sensory receptors pick up stimuli from inside or outside the body Motor endings axon terminals of motor neurons
Innervate effectors (muscle fibers and glands)

Nerves and ganglia

Nerves bundles of peripheral axons Ganglia clusters of peripheral neuronal cell bodies

Structural Organization of PNS in Region of a Spinal Nerve

Peripheral Endings
Afferent: Sensory Receptors Efferent: Somatic Motor Efferent: Autonomic Nervous System

Peripheral Sensory Receptors

Two main categories of sensory receptors
Special nerve endings of sensory neurons
Monitor general sensory information

Independent receptor cells specialized epithelial cells or small neurons

Monitor most types of special sensory information

Sensory Receptors

Peripheral Sensory Receptors

Sensory receptors also classified according to:
Location Type of stimulus detected Structure

Classification by Structure
General sensory receptors
Widely distributed Nerve endings of sensory neurons monitor:
Touch, pressure, vibration, stretch Pain, temperature, proprioception

Divided into two groups

Free nerve endings Encapsulated nerve endings

Free Nerve Endings

Abundant in epithelia and underlying connective tissue Respond to pain and temperature Monitor affective senses Two specialized types of free nerve endings
Merkel discs lie in the epidermis
Slowly adapting receptors for light touch

Hair follicle receptors wrap around hair follicles

Rapidly adapting receptors

Unencapsulated Nerve Endings

Encapsulated Nerve Endings

Consist of one or more end fibers of sensory neurons Enclosed in connective tissue Mechanoreceptors Include four main types

Encapsulated Nerve Endings

Encapsulated nerve endings: dendrites with special supporting structures (mechanoreceptors and proprioceptors)

Encapsulated Nerve Endings

Meissners corpuscles Pacinian corpuscles Ruffinis corpuscles Proprioceptors

Encapsulated Receptors

Proprioceptors
Monitor stretch in locomotory organs Three types of proprioceptors

Three Types of Proprioceptors

Muscle spindles measure the changing length of a muscle
Imbedded in the perimysium between muscle fascicles

Golgi tendon organs located near the muscle-tendon junction

Monitor tension within tendons

Joint kinesthetic receptors

Sensory nerve endings within the joint capsules

Proprioceptors

Table 14.1

Structure of Receptors in Skin

Somatic Efferent: Innervation of Skeletal Muscles

Innervation of Skeletal Muscle

Motor axons innervate skeletal muscles
Neuromuscular junctions (motor end plates)

Similar to synapses between neurons Acetylcholine diffuses across the synaptic cleft
Binds with molecules on the sarcolemma

Motor axons branch to innervate muscle fibers

The Neuromuscular Junction

Figure 14.5a, b

Innervation of Skeletal Muscle

Motor unit a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates

Figure 14.6a

Efferent: Autonomic Nervous System

Innervation of Visceral Muscle and Glands

Simpler than neuromuscular junctions of skeletal muscle Near the smooth muscle or gland it innervates
Visceral motor axon swells into a row of varicosities

Visceral motor responses

Slower than somatic motor reflexes

Innervation of Smooth Muscle

Figure 14.7

Cranial Nerves
Attach to the brain and pass through foramina of the skull Numbered from IXII Cranial nerves I and II attach to the forebrain
All others attach to the brain stem

Primarily serve head and neck structures

The vagus nerve (X) extends into the abdomen

The 12 Pairs of Cranial Nerves

Figure 14.8

CN I: Olfactory Nerves
Sensory nerves of smell

Table 14.2

CN II: Optic Nerve

Sensory nerve of vision

Table 14.2

CN III: Oculomotor Nerve

Innervates four of the extrinsic eye muscles

Table 14.2

CN IV: Trochlear Nerve

Innervates an extrinsic eye muscle

Table 14.2

CN V: Trigeminal Nerve
Provides sensory innervation to the face
Motor innervation to chewing muscles

Trigeminal Nerve

Table 14.2

CN VI: Abducens Nerve

Abducts the eyeball

Table 14.2

 Innervates muscles of facial expression Sensory innervation of face Taste

CN VII: Facial Nerve

Table 14.2

CN VIII: Vestibulocochlear Nerve

Sensory nerve of hearing and balance

Table 14.2

 Sensory and motor innervation of structures of the tongue and pharynx Taste

CN IX: Glossopharyngeal Nerve

Table 14.2

CN X: Vagus Nerve
A mixed sensory and motor nerve Main parasympathetic nerve
Wanders into thorax and abdomen

Table 14.2

 An accessory part of the vagus nerve Somatic motor function of pharynx, larynx, neck muscles

CN XI: Accessory Nerve

Table 14.2

 Runs inferior to the tongue

CN XII: Hypoglossal Nerve

Innervates the tongue muscles

Table 14.2

Spinal Nerves

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin

Spinal Nerves
31 pairs contain thousands of nerve fibers Connect to the spinal cord Named for point of issue from the spinal cord
8 pairs of cervical nerves (C1-C8) 12 pairs of thoracic nerves (T1-T12) 5 pairs of lumbar nerves (L1-L5) 5 pairs of sacral nerves (S1-S5) 1 pair of coccygeal nerves (Co1)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin

Spinal Nerves Posterior View

Figure 14.9

 Connect to the spinal cord by the dorsal root and ventral root Dorsal root contains sensory fibers Cell bodies located in the dorsal root ganglion Ventral root contains motor fibers arising from anterior gray column (cell bodies in gray matter of spinal cord no ganglia)

Spinal Nerves

 Branch into dorsal ramus and ventral ramus Rami communicantes connect to the base of the ventral ramus Lead to the sympathetic chain ganglia (gray and white ramus) Dorsal and ventral rami contain sensory and motor fibers

Spinal Nerves

Innervation of the Skin: Dermatomes

Dermatome an area of skin
Innervated by cutaneous branches of a single spinal nerve

Upper limb skin is supplied by nerves of the brachial plexus Lower limb
Lumbar nerves anterior surface Sacral nerves posterior surface

Map of Dermatomes Anterior View

Figure 14.17a

Map of Dermatomes Posterior View

Figure 14.17b

Disorders of the PNS: Shingles

Shingles (herpes zoster)
Viral infection Stems from childhood chicken pox Often brought on by stress Mostly experienced by those over 50

END