1

Key Points
1. Principals of EM Radiation
2. Introduction to Propagation & Antennas
3. Antenna Characterization


2
1. Principals of Radiated electromagentic (EM) fields
two laws (from Maxwell Equation)
1. A Moving Electric Field Creates a Magnetic (H) field
2. A Moving Magnetic Field Creates an Electric (E) field
3
c ~ 3 10
8
m/s
l = /2: wave will complete one cycle from A to B and back to A
= distance a wave travels during 1 cycle
f = c/ = c/2l
l = /2
A
B
Assume i(t) applied at A with length l = /2
EM wave will travel along the wire until it reaches the B
B is a point of high impedence wave reflects toward A and is reflected
back again
resistance gradually dissipates the energy of the wave
wave is reinforced at A
results in continuous oscillations of energy along the wire and a high
voltage at the A end of the wire.
An AC current i(t), flowing in a wire produces an EM field
4
Dipole antenna: 2 wires each with length l = /4
attach ends to terminals of a high frequency AC generator
at time t, the generators right side = + and the left side =
electrons flow away from the terminal and towards the + terminal
most current flows in the center and none flows at the ends
i(t) at any point will vary directly with v(t)

current distribution at time t
+
i(t) l = /4
A B
+
++++
+++++++
+++++++++++
+++++++++++++++
+++++++++++++++
- - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
voltage distribution at time t
A B
cycle after electrons have begun to flow max number of electrons will
be at A and min number at B
v
max
(t) is developed
i(t) = 0
5
EM patterns on Dipole Antenna:
sinusoidal distribution of charge exists on the antenna that reverses
polarity every cycle

sinusoidal variation in charge magnitude lags the sinusoidal variation in
current by cycle.
Electic field E and magnetic field H 90 out of phase with each other
fields add and produce a single EM field
total energy in the radiated wave is constant, except for some absorption
as the wave advances, the energy density decreases
Standing Wave
center of the antenna is at a low impedance: v(t) ~ 0, i
max
(t)
ends of antenna are at high impedence: i(t) ~ 0, v
max
(t)
maximum movement of electrons is in the center of the antenna at all
times
Resonance condition in the antenna
waves travel back and forth reinforcin
maximum EM waves are transmitted into at maximum radiation
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POLARIZATION

EM field is composed of electric & magnetic lines of force that are
orthogonal to each other
E determines the direction of polarization of the wave
vertical polarization: electric force lines lie in a vertical direction
horizontal polarization : electric force lines lie in a horizontal direction
circular polarization: electric force lines rotate 360 every cycle

An antenna extracts maximumenergy from a passing EM wave when it is
oriented in the same direction as E
use vertical antenna for the efficient reception of vertically polarized
waves
use horizontal antenna for the reception of horizontally polarized waves

if E rotates as the wave travels through space wave has. horizontal and
vertical components
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Ground wave transmissions missions at lower frequencies use vertical
polarization
horizontal polarization E force lines are parallel to and touch the earth.
earth acts as a fairly good conductor at low frequencies shorts out
vertical electric lines of force are bothered very little by the earth.
8
Types of antennas
simple antennas: dipole, long wire
complex antennas: additional components to
shape radiated field
provide high gain for long distances or weak signal reception
size ~ frequency of operation
combinations of identical antennas
phased arrays electrically shape and steer antenna
2. Introduction to Antennas and Propagation
transmit antenna: radiate maximum energy into surroundings
receive antenna: capture maximum energy from surrounding
radiating transmission line is technically an antenna
good transmission line = poor antenna
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Major Difference Between Antennas And Transmission Lines
transmission line uses conductor to carry voltage & current
radio signal travels through air (insulator)
antennas are transducers
- convert voltage & current into electric & magnetic field
- bridges transmission line & air
- similar to speaker/microphone with acoustic energy
Transmission Line
voltage & current variations produce EM field around conductor
EM field expands & contracts at same frequency as variations
EM field contractions return energy to the source (conductor)
Nearly all the energy in the transmission line remains in the system
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Antenna
Designed to Prevent most of the Energy from returning to Conductor
Specific Dimensions & EM wavelengths cause field to radiate
several before the Cycle Reversal
- Cycle Reversal - Field Collapses Energy returns to Conductor
- Produces 3-Dimensional EM field
- Electric Field Magnetic Field
- Wave Energy Propagation Electric Field & Magnetic Field
11
transmit & receive antennas
theoretically are the same (e.g. radiation fields, antenna gain)

practical implementation issue:
transmit antenna handles high power signal (W-MW)
- large conductors & high power connectors,
receive antenna handles low power signal (mW-uW)
Antenna Performance depends heavily on
Channel Characteristics: obstacles, distances temperature,
Signal Frequency
Antenna Dimensions
12
Propagation Modes five types
(1) Ground or Surface wave: follow earths contour
affected by natural and man-made terrain
salt water forms low loss path
several hundred mile range
2-3 MHz signal
(2) Space Wave
Line of Sight (LOS) wave
Ground Diffraction allows for greater distance
Approximate Maximum Distance, D in miles is


(antenna height in ft)
No Strict Signal Frequency Limitations
rx tx
h h 2 2 +
D =
h
rx
h
tx
13
(3) Sky Waves
ionosphere
transmitted
wave
reflected
wave
refracted
wave
skip distance
reflected off ionosphere (20-250 miles high)
large ranges possible with single hop or multi-hop
transmit angle affects distance, coverage, refracted energy
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Ionosphere
is a layer of partially ionized gasses below troposphere
- ionization caused by ultra-violet radiation from the sun
- affected by: available sunlight, season, weather, terrain
- free ions & electrons reflect radiated energy
consists of several ionized layers with varying ion density
- each layer has a central region of dense ionization
Layer altitude
(miles)
Frequency
Range
Availability

D 20-25 several MHz day only
E 55-90 20MHz day, partially
at night
F
1
90-140 30MHz 24 hours
F
2
200-250 30MHz 24 hours
F
1
& F
2
separate during daylight, merge at night
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Usable Frequency and Angles
Critical Frequency: frequency that wont reflect vertical transmission
- critical frequency is relative to each layer of ionosphere
- as frequency increases eventually signal will not reflect
Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF): highest frequency useful for
reflected transmissions
- absorption by ionosphere decreases at higher frequencies
- absorption of signal energy = signal loss
- best results when MUF is used
Frequency Trade-Off
high frequency signals eventually will not reflect back to ground
lower frequency signals are attenuated more in the ionosphere
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angle of radiation: transmitted energy relative to surface tangent
- smaller angle requires less ionospheric refraction to return to earth

- too large an angle results in no reflection
- 3
o
-60
o
are common angles
critical angle: maximum angle of radiation that will reflect energy
to earth
Determination of minimum skip distance:
- critical angle - small critical angle long skip distance
- height of ionosphere - higher layers give longer skip distances
for a fixed angle
multipath: signal takes different paths to the destination
angle of radiation
ionosphere
Critical Angle
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(4) Satellite Waves
Designed to pass through ionosphere into space
uplink (ground to space)
down link (space to ground)
LOS link
Frequencies >> critical frequency
penetrates ionosphere without reflection
high frequencies provide bandwidth
Geosynchronous orbit ~ 23k miles (synchronized with earths orbit)
long distances result in high path loss
EM energy disperses over distances
intensely focused beam improves efficiency

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total loss = G
t
+ G
r
path loss (dB)

Free Space Path Loss equation used to determine signal levels
over distance





G = antenna gain: projection of energy in specific direction
can magnify transmit power
increase effective signal level at receiver
2
4
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
f d
P
P
r
t
t
|
.
|

\
|
c
fd t 4
log 20
10
(dB)
19
(5) radar: requires
high gain antenna
sensitive low noise receiver
requires reflected signal from object distances are doubled
only small fraction of transmitted signal reflects back
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3. Antenna Characterization
antennas generate EM field pattern
not always possible to model mathematically
difficult to account for obstacles
antennas are studied in EM isolated rooms to extract key
performance characteristics
absolute value of signal intensity varies for given antenna design
- at the transmitter this is related to power applied at transmitter
- at the receiver this is related to power in surrounding space
antenna design & relative signal intensity determines relative field
pattern
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forward gain = 10dB
backward gain = 7dB
+10dB
+7dB
+ 4dB
0
o
270
o
180
o
90
o
Polar Plot of relative signal strength of radiated field
shows how field strength is shaped
generally 0
o
aligned with major physical axis of antenna
most plots are relative scale (dB)
- maximum signal strength location is 0 dB reference
- closer to center represents weaker signals
22
radiated field shaping ~ lens & visible light
application determines required direction & focus of signal
antenna characteristics
(i) radiation field pattern
(ii) gain
(iii) lobes, beamwidth, nulls
(iv) directivity
far-field measurements measured many wavelengths away from
antenna
near-field measurement involves complex interactions of decaying
electrical and magnetic fields - many details of antenna construction
(i) antenna field pattern = general shape of signal intensity in far-field
23
Measuring Antenna Field Pattern
field strength meter used to measure field pattern
indicates amplitude of received signal
calibrated to receiving antenna
relationship between meter and receive antenna known
measured strength in uV/meter
received power is in uW/meter
directly indicates EM field strength
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0
o
270
o
180
o
90
o
Determination of overall Antenna Field Pattern
form Radiation Polar Plot Pattern
use nominal field strength value (e.g. 100uV/m)
measure points for 360
o
around antenna
record distance & angle from antenna
connect points of equal field strength
100 uV/m
practically
distance between meter & antenna kept constant
antenna is rotated
plot of field strength versus angle is made
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Why Shape the Antenna Field Pattern ?
transmit antennas: produce higher effective power in direction of
intended receiver
receive antennas: concentrate energy collecting ability in
direction of transmitter
- reduced noise levels - receiver only picks up intended signal
avoid unwanted receivers (multiple access interference = MAI):
- security
- multi-access systems
locate target direction & distance e.g. radar

not always necessary to shape field pattern, standard broadcast is
often omnidirectional - 360
o

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Gain is Measured Specific to a Reference Antenna
isotropic antenna often used - gain over isotropic
- isotropic antenna radiates power ideally in all directions
- gain measured in dBi
- test antennas field strength relative to reference isotropic antenna
- at same power, distance, and angle
- isotropic antenna cannot be practically realized
wave dipole often used as reference antenna
- easy to build
- simple field pattern
(ii) Antenna Gain
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Antenna Gain = Amplifier Gain
antenna power output = power input transmission line loss
antenna shapes radiated field pattern
power measured at a point is greater/less than that using
reference antenna
total power output doesnt increase
power output in given direction increases/decreases relative to
reference antenna
e.g.
a lamp is similar to an isotropic antenna
a lens is similar to a directional antenna
- provides a gain/loss of visible light in a specific direction
- doesnt change actual power radiated by lamp
28
Rotational Antennas can vary direction of antenna gain
Directional Antennas focus antenna gain in primary direction
transmit antenna with 6dB gain in specific direction over isotropic
antenna 4 transmit power in that direction
receive antenna with 3dB gain is some direction receives 2 as
much power than reference antenna
Antenna Gain
often a cost effective means to
(i) increase effective transmit power
(ii) effectively improve receiver sensitivity
may be only technically viable means
more power may not be available (batteries)
front end noise determines maximum receiver sensitivity
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(iii) Beamwidth, Lobes & Nulls
Lobe: area of high signal strength
- main lobe
- secondary lobes
Nulls: area of very low signal strength
Beamwidth: total angle where relative signal power is 3dB
below peak value of main lobe
- can range from 1
o
to 360
o
Beamwidth & Lobes indicate sharpness of pattern focus
0
o
270
o
180
o
90
o
beam
width
null
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Center Frequency = optimum operating frequency
Antenna Bandwidth -3dB points of antenna performance
Bandwidth Ratio: Bandwidth/Center Frequency
e.g. f
c
= 100MHz with 10MHz bandwidth
- radiated power at 95MHz & 105MHz = radiated power at f
c
- bandwidth ratio = 10/100 = 10%
31
Main Trade-offs for Antenna Design
directivity & beam width
acceptable lobes
maximum gain
bandwidth
radiation angle
Bandwidth Issues
High Bandwidth Antennas tend to have less gain than
narrowband antennas
Narrowband Receive Antenna reduces interference from adjacent
signals & reduce received noise power
Antenna Design Basics
Antenna Dimensions
operating frequencies determine physical size of antenna elements
design often uses as a variable (e.g. 1.5 length, 0.25 spacing)
32
Testing & Adjusting Transmitter use antennas electrical load
Testing required for
- proper modulation
- amplifier operation
- frequency accuracy
using actual antenna may cause significant interference
dummy antenna used for transmitter design (not antenna design)
- same impedance & electrical characteristics
- dissipates energy vs radiate energy
- isolates antenna from problem of testing transmitter
33
Testing Receiver
test & adjust receiver and transmission line without antenna
use single known signal from RF generator
follow on test with several signals present
verify receiver operation first then connect antenna to
verify antenna operation
Polarization
EM field has specific orientation of E-field & M field
Polarization Direction determined by antenna & physical orientation
Classification of E-field polarization
- horizontal polarization : E-field parallel to horizon
- vertical polarization: E-field vertical to horizon
- circular polarization: constantly rotating
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Transmit & Receive Antenna must have same Polarization for
maximum signal energy induction
if polarizations arent same E-field of radiated signal will try to
induce E-field into wire to correct orientation
- theoretically no induced voltage
- practically small amount of induced voltage
Circular Polarization
compatible with any polarization field from horizontal to vertical
maximum gain is 3dB less than correctly oriented horizontal or
vertically polarized antenna
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Antenna Fundamentals
Dipole Antennas (Hertz): simple, old, widely used
- root of many advance antennas
consists of 2 spread conductors of 2 wire transmission lines
each conductor is in length
total span = + small center gap
Distinct voltage & current patterns
driven by transmission line at midpoint
i = 0 at end, maximum at midpoint
v = 0 at midpoint, v
max
at ends
purely resistive impedance = 73O
easily matched to many transmission lines
gap


Transmission
Line
+v
-v
i
High Impedance 2k-3kO
Low Impedance 73O
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E-field (E) & M-field (B) used to determine radiation pattern
E goes through antenna ends & spreads out in increasing loops
B is a series of concentric circles centered at midpoint gap
E
B
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Azimuth Pattern
Elevation Pattern
Polar Radiation Pattern
3-dimensional field pattern is donut shaped
antenna is shaft through donut center
radiation pattern determined by taking slice of donut
- if antenna is horizontal slice reveals figure 8
- maximum radiation is broadside to antennas arms
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dipole performance isotropic reference antenna
in free space beamwidth = 78
o
maximum gain = 2.1dB
dipole often used as reference antenna
- feed same signal power through dipole & test antenna
- compare field strength in all directions
Actual Construction
(i) propagation velocity in wire < propagation velocity in air
(ii) fields have fringe effects at end of antenna arms
- affected by capacitance of antenna elements
1
st
estimate: make real length 5% less than ideal - otherwise
introduce reactive parameter
Useful Bandwidth: 5%-15% of f
c
major factor for determining bandwidth is diameter of conductor
smaller diameter narrow bandwidth
39
Multi-Band Dipole Antennas
Transmission
Line

1
/4
C

L

C

L

1
/4

2
/4
2
/4
use 1 antenna support several widely separated frequency bands
e.g. HAM Radio - 3.75MHz-29MHz
Traps: L,C elements inserted into dipole arms
arms appear to have different lengths at different frequencies
traps must be suitable for outdoor use
2
ndry
affects of trap impact effective dipole arm length-adjustable
not useful over 30MHz
40
Transmit Receive Switches
allows use of single antenna for transmit & receive
alternately connects antenna to transmitter & receiver
high transmit power must be isolated from high gain receiver
isolation measured in dB
e.g. 100dB isolation 10W transmit signal ~ 10nW receive signal
41
Elementary Antennas
low cost flexible solutions
Long Wire Antenna
effective wideband antenna
length l = several wavelengths
- used for signals with 0.1l < < 0.5l
- frequency span = 5:1
drawback for band limited systems - unavoidable interference
near end driven by ungrounded transmitter output
far end terminated by resistor
- typically several hundred O
- impedance matched to antenna Z
0
transmitter electrical circuit ground connected to earth
Transmission
Line
earth ground
R=Z
0
42
practically - long wire is a lossy transmission line
- terminating resistor prevent standing waves
Polar radiation pattern
2 main lobes
- on either side of antenna
- pointed towards antenna termination
smaller lobes on each side of antenna pointing forward & back
radiation angle 45
o
(depending on height) useful for sky waves
angular radiation pattern
horizon
feed
polar ration pattern
43
poor efficiency:
transmit power
- 50% of transmit power radiated
- 50% dissapated in termination resistor
receive power
- 50% captured EM energy converted to signal for reciever
- 50% absorbed by terminating resistor
44
Folded Dipole Antenna
- basic dipole folded to form complete circuit
- core to many advanced antennas
- mechanically more rugged than dipole
- 10% more bandwidth than dipole
- input impedance ~ 292 O
- close match to std 300O twin lead wire transmission line
- use of different diameter upper & lower arms allows
variable impedance
/2
45
Loop & Patch Antenna wire bent into loops
Patch Antenna: rectangular conducting area with || ground plane
Area A
N-turns
V = maximum voltage induced in receiver by EM field
B = magnetic field strength flux of EM field
A = area of loop
N = number of turns
f = signal frequency
k = physical proportionality factor
V = k(2tf)BAN
Antenna
Plane
46
Loop & Patch Antennas are easy to embed in a product (e.g. pager)
Broadband antenna - 500k-1600k Hz bandwidth
Not as efficient as larger antennas
Radiation Pattern
maximum to center axis through loop
very low broadside to the loop
useful for direction finding
- rotate loop until signal null (minimum) observed
- transmitter is on either side of loop
- intersection with 2
nd
reading pinpoints transmitter
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55 2.14 dB


Dipole


360 0 dB


Isotropic
Beamwidth
-3 dB
Gain (over
isotropic)
Shape Name Radiation Pattern


20
30
50
200
25
14.7 dB
10.1 dB
-0.86 dB
3.14 dB
7.14 dB












Parabolic
Dipole
Helical
Turnstile
Full Wave
Loop
Yagi





Biconical
Horn
15 15 dB Horn
360x200 14 dB