MINOR PROJECT

SOLAR SAILS
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Solar Radiation Pressure

Solar radiation pressure is the force exerted by solar

radiation on objects within its reach. It is one of the source of orbital perturbations and is the main source of propulsion for solar sail. According to theory of special relativity, photons are massless their energy (E) and momentum (p) are related by :E=p*c The momentum the photons carry are transferred to the surface. The disturbance force can be expressed simply as F = P*S*Cr*R Radiation pressure is about 105 Pa at earths distance from the sun The radiation pressure force is inexorable and requires no fuel mass

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Radiation Pressure
Waves not only carry energy but also momentum. The effect is very small (we dont ordinarily feel pressure from light). If light is completely absorbed during an interval Dt, the momentum transferred is given by

Newtons law:

Dp Dt

and twice as much if reflected.

Supposing one has a wave that hits a surface of area A (perpendicularly), the amount of energy transferred to that surface in time Dt will be therefore

Radiation pressure: Page 3

Radiation pressure: examples

Sun radiation: I= 1 KW/m2 Area 1km2 => F=IA/c=3.3 mN Mass m=10 kg => a=F/m=3.3 10-4 m/s2 When does it reach 10mph=4.4 m/s? V=at => t=V/a=1.3 104 s=3.7 hrs

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Force diagram of a Solar Sail

The design of reflector should be large enough to get a suitable acceleration but of so small a mass to be pushed and accelerated up to a significant speed by incident photons from the Sun. In the above figure I = incident light; R = reflected light; FI = incident force; FR = reaction force , F = the resultant; S = the sail In realistic situation (non perfect reflector) thrust will no longer be inclined as some incident photons will be absorbed and subsequently re-radiated as thermal radiation.
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Force diagram of a Solar Sail contd.

Due to the absorption temp. of the sail increases Temp calculated using Stefan Boltzmann law The stresses increase Tendency to billow increase The final force component is that due to photons which have been absorbed and then reemitted as thermal radiation from both the front (reflecting) ck surfaces of the sail.

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sASRP acting on a sail surface

The SRP force acting on a sail surface with area A is also often approximated as

F PAcos2

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Fluxuations in the radiation pressure

Solar Prominences
Prominences are dense clouds of material suspended above the surface of the Sun by loops of magnetic field. Prominences can remain in a quiet or quiescent state for days or weeks. However, as the magnetic loops that support them slowly change, prominences can erupt and rise off of the Sun over the course of a few minutes or hours

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Solar Flares

Solar flares are tremendous explosions on the surface of the Sun. In a matter of just a few minutes they heat material to many millions of degrees and release as much energy as a billion megatons of TNT. They occur near sunspots, usually along the dividing line (neutral line) between areas of oppositely directed magnetic fields.

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Solar Sail Design

Solar sails of all varieties consist of a large, flimsy sail and some kind of payload that holds such things as antennas computers solar panels guidance sensors science instruments Future designs may include crew cabins and cargo containers.

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Material in solar sail:

Solar sails are composed of at, smooth material covered with a reective coating and supported by lightweight structures attached to a central hub. Near-term sails likely will use aluminized Mylar -- a strong, thin polyester lm -- or CP-1, a space-rated insulating material. More robust sails might use a meshwork of interlocking carbon bers. The most common material in current designs is aluminized 2 micro meter kapton film. It resists the heat to pass ,lose the heat to the Sun and still remains reasonably strong. Research showed that various materials such as alumina for laser light sails and carbon fiber for microwave pushed light sails were superior sail materials .
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Performance parameter:
Sail assembly loading:

The characteristic acceleration:

Solar radiation pressure:

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Three Axis Stabilized

Many solar sail designs use a rigid structure, much like a kite, to hold the sail out to catch sunlight. This is called three axis stabilization, because the structure supports the sail in all three dimensions, or axes, without spinning. Attaching the outer edges of the sail to stiff booms that meet at the center of the sail is a good way to prevent collapse in the plane of the sail. Any other structure that prevents the sail from collapsing, like a stiff outer torus, could work as well.

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Booms:

In sailing, a boom is a spar (pole), along the foot (bottom) of a fore and aft rigged sail, that greatly improves control of the angle and shape of the sail . The primary action of the boom is to keep the foot of the sail flatter when the sail angle is away from the centerline of the boat. If booms alone are to support a solar

sail, they must act as columns and as beams. As columns, the booms prevent the sail from collapsing inward towards the center. As beams, the booms are stiff and fixed at the center.

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Booms,Masts & Stays

Using a combination of booms, masts, and stays, a 3axis stabilized solar sail can be made lighter, at the cost of the complexity. By supporting the booms with masts and stays, they only need to act as columns, and not as beams. The mast of a sailing vessel is a tall, vertical, or near vertical, spar, or arrangement of spars, which supports the sails. The masts are set perpendicular to the booms and stays connect between the booms to each other and to the masts. Stays are the heavy ropes, wires, or rods

on sailing vessels that run from the masts to the hull.

The booms can be made much lighter because the stays and masts prevent the sail from folding up.

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Spin Stabilized Sail:

Spinning a solar sail pulls the sail material out tight and flat so it doesn't collapse when sunlight pushes on it . This is called centripetal acceleration. Thus, spinning sails have potential for being lighter and faster. The main design would look an octagon would consist of eight triangular sections connected at the center and held together using tension wires. The controls would be located at the center and would move one of the eight sections outward or inward so that the sunlight that hits the sail would push the sail off center and cause the sail to turn .

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 Heliogyros:
The sail consists of several very long (twelve vanes, seven km in length in the JPL design) vanes extending from a central hub. The vehicle continues to spin in order to keep the vanes tight.

Square:
It is a 3-axis stabilized sail which is square in shape. one of the most fundamental structural and mechanical trade is the implementation of deployable booms.

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ATTITUDE CONTROL
Attitude control is the exercise of control over the orientation of an object with respect to an inertial frame of reference or another entity (the celestial sphere, certain fields, nearby objects, etc.). Controlling vehicle attitude requires
Sensors - to measure vehicle attitude) Actuators - to apply the torques needed ) Algorithms - to command the actuators based on
(1) sensor measurements of the current attitude (2) specification of a desired attitude.

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SENSORS
The input from the sensors triggers the corrections that are carried out by the reaction control systems and thrusters onboard the satellites. Types of Sensors
Star Sensor Earth Sensor Sun Sensor
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STAR SENSORS
Most accurate reference sources, especially for low earth orbits. Offers an accuracy of 0.001 degrees though complex and expensive. The processing logic catalogues stars according to their brightness and spectral type. Tracking error is minimized if bright stars (of the third or fourth magnitude) are brought into the field of view.

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STAR SENSORS ( contd. )

Star Trackers
Generally tracks one star in the field of view for a long time.

Star Mappers
They scan the entire sky and can sense more than 1,500 stars up to the fifth magnitude. Attitude is computed as the position of each of the sensed star is already known. An advanced star sensor, developed by ISRO, identifies a star by comparing it with a star catalogue on board and computes the attitude of the satellite.

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EARTH SENSORS
It detects the change in radiance from space to Earth and again to space, when the satellites field of view of the scan path intersects the Earths disc. The temperature of the Earth (300 k) is sharply different from that of space (3 K). Taking into account the time difference between the two Crossover Points, the sensor detects the presence of Earth. Provides an accuracy of 0.3-1 degrees, whereas 0.1-0.3 degrees.
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SUN SENSORS

The sun sensor measures the sun angle with reference to the satellite. An analog sun sensor is used to point one of the satellites axes towards the sun as well as for orienting the solar panels in the direction of the sun in the geostationary orbit. A digital sun sensor measures the sun angle with reference to the satellites pitch axis. The light is passed through several transparent and opaque sections of the sun sensor reticle. A 0.125 change of the sun angle, a unique pattern is lighted up and is used as a code to orient the satellite towards the sun. INSATs have digital sun sensors.

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INERTIAL STELLAR COMPASS (ISC)

Drapers Inertial Stellar Compass (ISC) is a real-time, miniature, low power stellar inertial attitude determination system, composed of a wide field-of-view active pixel sensor (APS) star camera and a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) gyro assembly, with associated processing and power electronics. The integrated APS and MEMS gyro technologies provide a 3-axis attitude determination system with an accuracy of 0.1 degree at very low power and mass.

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ATTITUDE CONTROL TECHNIQUES

Center of Mass / Center of Pressure offset Sliding Masses Vanes Thrusters Variable Reflective Element

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CENTER OF MASS / CENTER OF PRESSURE OFFSET

Can be achieved by mounting the payload on an articulated boom. The boom rotations can be used to control the center of mass location. Can provide full three-axis attitude control, control authority is weak when the sail is almost edgewise to the sun. Boom rotations is not problematic for passive experiments, but may pose a problem for optical payload or communication antennae.

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SLIDING MASSES
Also known as trim control or ballast masses are two small masses, which move inside and along the masts via lanyard line and electric motors. They also provide center of center of pressure to center of mass displacement. This can provide the pitch and yaw attitude control.
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VANES
Spar mounted tip vanes are small reflective panels attached to the end of the spar through drive motors. Although the forces generated is small, the large moment arm relative to the center of mass can provide suitable torques. These vanes provide pitch and roll attitude control. Yaw control can also be achieved through appropriate combination of pitch and roll control. They provide excellent control authority but raise additional demands for sail structural design, posing problems for packing and deployment.

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THRUSTERS
A micro Plasma Pulsed Thruster ( PPT ) is the most suitable for sails because it does not require propellant tanks, micromachined valves and feed systems. The PPT, uses solid Teflon as propellant, electric power to ionize and electromagnetically accelerates plasma to high exhaust velocities. The plasma is then accelerated to high exhaust velocities by the Lorentz force. The interaction of the current and the self-imposed magnetic field generates the j B Lorentz force.

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VARIABLE REFLECTIVE ELEMENT

The liquid crystal device, the variable reflective element, a thin-film instrument to change the surface reflection characteristics of sunlight by turning on and off the power of the device. The devices were enclosed in thin polyimide film, the same material as the sail, and mounted in line around the edges of the sail. As they turn ON and OFF repeatedly in synchronization with the spin rate, solar-light pressure becomes unbalanced, eventually generating torque that affects the entire spacecraft to tilt its spin axis. Thus attitude of the sail can be controlled without the use of fuel.

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VARIABLE REFLECTIVE ELEMENT IMAGES

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SOLAR SAIL DEPLOYMENT

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DEPLOYMENT THE MOST CRITICAL PHASE

Solar Sail mission success depends on how successful the deployment is . The sail undergoes dynamic changes from packed structure to fully deployed stage. The film is very thin thus - vulnerable to tear - vulnerable to shrinks The spinning system is a solution to these problems .

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STOWAGE
The two dimensional folding pattern called rotationally skew fold

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THE OPTIMUM FOLD

Tests show that : larger the radius more faster the deployment larger the folding pitch lesser is the unfolding spin rate spin direction wrapped membrane realizes quick deployment. similarity parameter

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DEPLOYMENT SEQUENCE :The deployment sequence is as follows: 1) Separation from rocket with slow spin (5 rpm) 2) Spin down using RCS (5 rpm -> 2 rpm) 3) Release of launch lock 4) Spin up using RCS (2 rpm -> 20 rpm) 5) First stage of the deployment (20 rpm -> 5 rpm) 6) Second stage of the deployment (5 rpm -> 2 rpm) 7) Spin down using RCS (2 rpm -> 1 rpm) Video simulation of deployment steps of IKAROS SOLAR SAIL 8) Control of spin direction and rate using steering devices. The spin rate in both deployment stages is decreased because the moment of inertia of the sail is increased. Page 37

DEPLOYMENT MECHANISM

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A note on the RCS (Reaction control system)

Purpose is Attitude control and steering by the use of thrusters. Use combinations of large and smaller thrusters. In solar sail it used to spin up the spacecraft, before the centrifugal deployment and control its attitude throughout the mission life. This system stores HFC-134a in liquid-phase in the tank, extracts the vapor of HFC-134a from the tank, and ejects the vapour from the thruster nozzle.

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Deployment mechanism
Two types of deployment :
Continuous deployment

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 Divided Deployment Mechanism

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Orbit Control by Sunlight in Sails

With a solar sail, orbit control is possible without using propellant. Orbit control requires to change the angle (facing direction) of the membrane to the sun. By shifting the attitude of the orbiters main body through thruster jets, we will change the attitude of the membrane. *IKAROS uses a gas-liquid equilibrium thruster.

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ZNAMYA EXPERIMENTS
Znamya (Banner) - Main goal was to test large thin film deployable structures as well as some applications. to verify the concept of the system, to test stability to control the large thin film structure in space. to run "Novey Svet" (New Light) experiment

Znamya-2:

- Frst practical experiment for the system. - 20- meter thin film structure was successfully deployed using centrifugal forces onboard of Progress M-15 cargo spacecraft. - Monitored using telemetry and visual devices. Znamya-2.5 - enlarged size and film tailoring improvements the reflected light - 5-10 times brighter; - used to point reflected beam to a few cities after sunset.

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COSMOS 1
Cosmos 1, a joint project of The Planetary Society and Cosmos Studios, was built in Russia.

Cosmos 1, the first solar sail never had a chance to test its revolutionary technology: On June 21, 2005, Cosmos 1 was launched as planned from the submarine Borisoglebsk of the Russian Northern Fleet. Unfortunately, the first stage of the Volna failed and never completed its scheduled burn, and the spacecraft did not enter its intended orbit.
Immediate Goal: To prove that solar sailing is possible. Grand Concept: To establish solar sailing as a feasible and effective technology. Its eight triangular blades are 15 meters (49 feet) in length, and have a total surface area of 600 square meters (6500 square feet)

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NANOSAIL-D
NanoSail-D experiment was developed and built by NASAs Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala., in collaboration with NASAs Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California. First launch and deployment was in August 2008 on a Falcon 1, which experienced problems that resulted in the loss of the launch vehicle and payloads. But 2 NanoSailD flight units were constructed, in case 1 failed or another launch opportunity became available. NanoSail-D, launched in late 2010 and ejected 7 days after launch, was one of 6 payloads on FASTSAT.

The orbit was to be higher and circular which made NanoSail-D more visible to astronomers on the ground and changed the mission duration to 70-120 days.
The sail was made of an ultra-thin reflective polymer called CP-1. It was 7.5 microns thick with a surface area of approx. 100 sq. feet when unfurled.

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FEATHERSAIL SECOND GENERATION NANOSAIL CONCEPT

NanoSail-D2 will have the capability to prove solar propulsion, along with testing the sail deployment in a zero gravity environment. This second generation design has been dubbed FeatherSail due to the extended functionalities of its sails. Goal : To leverage recent technological innovations necessary to meet the needs of long duration deep space missions. Dependable sail deployment systems; Steerable solar sails; Deployable thin film solar arrays; Low temperature, radiation tolerant SiliconGermanium (SiGe) electronics.

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Interplanetary Kite-craft Accelerated by Radiation (IKAROS) of the Sun

IKAROS is a JAXA experimental spacecraft launched on 21 May, 2010, aboard an H-IIA rocket, together with the ill-fated Akatsuki (Venus Climate Orbiter) probe and four other small spacecraft. Being a spin-type explorer, it successfully used centrifugal force to unfurl its 20 meter diagonal, 0.0075 millimetre thick polyimide resin deposited with aluminium. On top of this thin sail, the thin film solar cells, a liquid crystal device that controls attitude by changing light reflection characteristics, a temperature sensor and a dust counter are equipped.

Membrane: 7.5-micrometer thickness polyimide resin with aluminium vapour deposited on one side; reinforced to prevent splitting Page

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 In their next solar sail project, they intend to pair a solar sail 10 times larger than that of IKAROS with the ion engines that took the Hayabusa satellite to asteroid Itokawa and back for a mission to Jupiter. They are eyeing a 2019 or 2020 launch so this craft can rendezvous with planned U.S. and European missions and travel to the sphere of Jupiter by combining solar sail technology and a high-performance ion engine.

Objectives: To verify navigation technology and demonstrate the solar sail. Power generation using thin-film solar cells attached on the membrane in addition to acceleration by solar radiation. In the case of a solar power sail, it can gain the necessary electric power using a vast area of thin film solar cells on the membrane even when the demonstrator is away from the sun. The IKAROS is, therefore, an ambitious mission to verify the above two technologies together which are essential for us to explore deep space as it would still be possible to Page 49 generate sufficient electricity for a mission using a solar array on the sail.

 The success criteria of the IKAROS mission are summarized as follows: Deployment of a large membrane sail in space using a similar mechanical device and procedures to those in a Solar Power Sail craft. It requires housekeeping data that verify the expansion status of the membrane. Generation of electricity from the thin-film layer of solar cells on the membrane verified by housekeeping data. Demonstration of the photon propulsion technique including verification data of the reflectance parameters to determine the diffuse and specula properties of the radiation impinging on the sail. Also, measurement of the overall sail reflectance, the temperature, and the condition of the sail surface under the influence of debris impacts. Demonstration of GN&C techniques in support of solar sail propulsion involving navigation and orbit determination under the conditions of continuous but tiny acceleration. There must be means to control the acceleration direction and to maintain the attitude of the spacecraft.

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 Scientific Objectives in Solar Power Sail Mission: A Mapping Observation of Background Emission Jovian Science: Magnetosphere, Jovian Satellites, Jovian Atmosphere (option) Flybys with Trojan Asteroids and Main-belt Asteroids (Extended Flight Segment) Gamma-Ray Bursts Detectors A Large Area Dust Counter

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WHICH NASA MISSIONS WILL UTILISE SOLAR SAILS?

Mission name: ST9 (Space Tech 9) Tentative launch date: 2010-2011 , Estimated sail size: 40 meters on a side Description: This mission is led by Goddard, in collaboration with JPL and Langley. It will confirm that the solar sail design and implementation is not only feasible, but durable and functional. If this mission is successful, engineers believe that scaling the sail size up (from 40 to 100-150 meters on a side) is doable. Mission name: Solar Sail Demonstration (The Sunjammer Project) Tentative launch date: 2014 , Estimated sail size: 1200 meters on a side Description: The project will hold its preliminary design review in 2012 and will launch on a Falcon 9. At just over 70 pounds, this solar sail demonstrator will weigh 10 times less than the largest sail ever flown in space. It will produce a maximum thrust of approximately 0.01 Newton. It is truly propellant less -- it will use control vanes for attitude control. Mission name: Heliostorm Tentative launch date: 2016-2020, Estimated sail size: 150 meters on a side Description: Heliostorm would alert scientists of solar storms that cause problems with Earthbased communication systems by placing a spacecraft closer to the sun than the current monitoring equipment which could double the warning time before communications problems. Mission name: SPI (Solar Polar Imager) Tentative launch date: 2020-2035, Estimated sail size: 150 meters on a side Description: The SPI mission is one that requires continual thrust and will allow a spacecraft to orbit the sun at a high angle - giving a good view of the sun's Polar Regions.

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INDIAN PROGRAMME IN SOLAR SAIL

Some extracts from the press released on April 10, 2003 are highlighted as follows: The Multipupose satellite, INSAT-3A, built by ISRO, was successfully launched early this morning ( April 10, 2003 ) by the Ariane-5 launch vehicle of Arianespace. INSAT-3Ais the third satellite in the INSAT-3 series; INSAT-3C were launched by Ariane-5 and Ariane-4 launch vehicles on march 22, 2000 and January 24, 2002 respectively. In the coming days, orbit raising operations of INSAT-3A will be carried out by firing its 440 Newton Liquid Apogee motor ( LAM ) in stages till the satellite attains its final geostationary orbit, which is about 36,000 km above the equator. The satellite has about 1.6 tonne of propellant ( Mono-Methyl Hydrazine MMH fuel and Mixed Oxides of Nitrogen MON-3 oxidiser) for orbit raising operations as well as for station-keeping and in-orbit attitude control. The on-board availability of propellants will enable maintaining the satellite for operational period of 12 years. When the satellite reaches near-geostationary Orbit, deployment of its solar panels as well as its antennas and the solar sail will be carried out and the satellite put in its final 3-axis stabilised mode. This will be followed by trim manoeuvres to take the satellite to its designated orbital slot. The payloads will be consequently checked out before the commissioning of the satellite. INSAT-3Ahas its main body in the shape of a cuboid of 2.0 m x1.77x2.0 m. When its solar panels and solar sails are fully deployed in orbit, the satellite will measure 24.4 m in length. INSAT-3As Sun tracking solar panels generate 3.1 kW of power. Two 70 Ah Nickel -Hydrogen batteries support full payload operations even during eclipses. INSAT-3A like all its predecessors in the INSAT series is a 3 axis body-stabilised spacecraft using earth sensor, sun sensor, inertial reference unit, momentum/reaction wheels and magnetic torques. It is equipped with bi-propellant thrusters. The satellite has two deployable antennas and one fixed antennae that carry out various transmit and receive functions.

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ALTERNATIVES TO SOLAR SAILS

When the solar sail gets far away from the sun , there is not enough light available to provide additional propulsion . Sun is a point source in universe , radiating sunlight in all its directions in an ever expanding sphere of light . Thus , some other source is required to accelerate the sail after a distance .

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LASER SAILING
Laser propulsion is a form of beam-powered propulsion where the energy source is a remote laser system and separate from the reaction mass. Advantages : Highly directional Efficiency Disadvantages : Location of laser is a problem Divergence
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PLACING A LASER SAIL IN ORBIT

On earth Problems :Dense atmosphere Rotation of earth Political problems In earths orbit Problems :Political problems Tracking and pointing , more difficult now Generation of power large on board solar arrays required

In suns orbit Advantages :More power can be produced No atmosphere no added divergence Pointing easier only lasers motion to be considered . Two or three lasers could be used in such a way that one of them is always pointing towards the sail Problem :Page 56 Divergence

IN THE JUPITERs ORBIT

No atmospehric problems No political problems Pointing is easier Jupiter orbits the sun in 12 yrs. Power problem solved by tether . Energy contained in the jovian magnetic field is harnessed with a long conducting wire or tether . Due to its motion , a flow of electricity is produced. So , we can extend the range of solar sails two to five folds by putting the laser carefully .

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MICROWAVE SAILING
Cheaper than lasers High efficiency. Microwaves generation has much higher efficiency than laser beams, leading to lower cost of power and reduced waste heat. Phased arrays. Microwave phased-arrays are an off-the-shelf technology. Large apertures. Large microwave apertures are much easier to fabricate than large laser apertures. Lightweight mesh sails. Microwave sails need not be a solid film, but can be perforated as long as the hole size <<l Disadvantage Large sizes. Microwaves have wavelength four orders of magnitude longer than that of visible light. A microwave sail propulsion system must have a diameter 10,000 times larger than that pushed by an optical sail to put the same power on the same sized target at the same distance. Page 58

MICROWAVE SAILING
A way of using microwave technology in solar sails is to insert a thin film focusing lens into the microwave beam between the transmitter and the sailcraft . But , the problem is that of another large optical component that must be positioned accurately .

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PARTICLE BEAM SAIL PROPULSION

Charged particles ( protons ) are accelerated to high speeds When they strike a sail , the sail would move and accelerate Charged particle beams have one very serious flaw in their potential application to space travel divergence . The divergence of a particle beam is caused by the accelerated particles themselves . As the beam of charged particles emerges , protons , begin to push away from each other until the beam spreads and becomes too diffuse to be useful . The first step in producing a neutral beam is making a charged particle beam . Neutral atoms cannot be accelerated in an electric or magnetic field because they carry no net charge . Therefore , a beam of charged particles is first produced and accelerated to high velocities . Passing it through a very thin film or plasma cloud then neutralises the beam

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LIMITATIONS OF SOLAR SAILS

Solar sails don't work well, if at all, in low Earth orbit below about 800 km altitude due to erosion or air drag. Above that altitude they give very small accelerations that take months to build up to useful speeds. Solar sails have to be physically large, and payload size is often small. Deploying solar sails is also highly challenging to date.
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APPLICATIONS
Space Science: Help to solve the mysteries of the universe by use of probes which can enter the fringes of interstellar space with a short flight time. Exploration of the solar system: A propulsion system which will conduct comprehensive exploration of the entire solar system (including beyond the planets) . Search for life beyond Earth. Revolutionize our access to space: Light sails could be a means to deliver payloads on rendezvous missions to the outer planets.

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THANK YOU
NAME ABID NABI KHANDEY ANJANA KUMARI MANISH TRIPATHI MUSHFIQ SARFARAZ SADHANA SINGH TEJASVI THANAI ROLL NO. 1 2 16 17 22 30
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