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Fundamentals
of Casting process
Solidification of metals
Fluid flow of molten metal
Casting / Foundry
Casting processes basically involve the introduction of a molten metal into a mold cavity, where upon solidification, the metal takes on the shape of the mold cavity.
Applications :
Cylinder blocks, liners, machine tool beds, pistons, piston rings, mill rolls, wheels, housings, water supply pipes, bells
Crank handle formed by casting; some areas were machined and assembled after casting
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Flask : A molding flask is one which holds the sand mould intact Drag : Lower molding flask
Core : It is used for making hollow cavities in the castings. Core Print :
A region used to support the core
Pouring basin : A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into
molten metal is poured.
chaplet
Mold cavity
Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold
cavity
Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold
cavity .
Sprue : The passage through which the molten material from the
pouring basin reaches the mold cavity.
Pattern Material Wood, metals & alloys, plastic, plaster of Paris, plastic and rubbers, wax, and resins. Material selection depends on size and shape of casting.
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Sand Casting
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Pattern Allowances
Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the dimensional characteristics of the casting
The selection of correct allowances greatly helps to reduce machining costs and avoid rejections.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Shrinkage or contraction allowance Draft or taper allowance Machining or finish allowance Distortion or camber allowance Rapping allowance or shake allowances
(2) Solid Shrinkage: It refers to the reduction in volume during the cooling of the cast metal to room temperature. To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns.
The rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on the material. For example steel contracts to a higher degree compared to aluminum.
Shrinkage
Metal Percent Contraction (-) Expansion(+) -7.1% -6.5% -5.5% -4.9% -4.5% -2.5-4% -3.2% +2.5% Aluminum Zinc Gold Copper Brass Carbon Steel Lead Gray Cast Iron
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Inner details of the pattern require higher draft than outer surfaces.
The amount of draft depends upon the length of the vertical side of the pattern to be extracted; the intricacy of the pattern; the method of molding; and pattern material.
Pattern material
Wood
Height of the Draft angle given surface (External surface) (inch) 1 3.00 1 to 2 1.50 2 to 4 1.00 4 to 8 0.75 8 to 32 0.50 1 1.50 1 to 2 1.00 2 to 4 0.75 4 to 8 0.50 8 to 32 0.50
Draft angle (Internal surface) 3.00 2.50 1.50 1.00 1.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 0.75
Machining Allowances of Various Metals Metal Dimension (inch) Up to 12 12 to 20 20 to 40 Up to 6 6 to 20 20 to 40 Allowance (inch) 0.12 0.20 0.25 0.12 0.25 0.30
Cast iron
Cast steel
Non ferrous
Up to 8 8 to 12 12 to 40
Distortions in Casting
Rapping Allowance
Before the withdrawal from the sand mold, the pattern is rapped all around the vertical faces to enlarge the mold cavity slightly, which facilitate its removal. Since it enlarges the final casting made, it is desirable that the original pattern dimension should be reduced to account for this increase. There is no sure way of quantifying this allowance, since it is highly dependent on the foundry personnel practice involved. It is a negative allowance and is to be applied only to those
Fluid flow
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Fluid flow
Bernoullis theorem Based on - principle of conservation of energy - frictional losses in a fluid system
p v h Constant g 2 g
2
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Fluid flow
Mass continuity States that for an incompressible liquid the rate of flow is constant.
Q A1v1 A2v2
Q = volumetric rate of flow A = cross-sectional area of the liquid stream v = velocity of the liquid
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Fluid flow
Sprue profile Relationship between height and crosssectional area at any point in the sprue is A1 h2 given by
A2 h1
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Fluid flow
Flow characteristics Reynolds number, Re, is used to characterize aspect of fluid flow. It represents the ratio of the inertia to the viscous forces in fluid flow and is defined as
Re
vD
v = velocity of the liquid D = diameter of the channel = density n = viscosity of the liquid.
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Flow Characteristics
0 < Re < 2000 => laminar flow 2000 < Re < 20 000 =>mixture of laminar and turbulent flow , generally regarded as harmless in gating systems. Re > 20 000 => severe turbulence In gating systems, Re typically ranges from 2000 to 20,000
Turbulence can be reduced by the design of a gating system that promotes a more laminar flow of the liquid metal. Sharp corners and abrupt changes in sections within the casting can be a leading cause of turbulence. Their affect can be mitigated by the employment of radii.
Casting parameters
Mold design (Risers, runners, gates, etc.) Mold material and its surface characteristics Degree of superheat Rate of pouring Heat transfer
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Heat Transfer
Important consideration in casting Heat flow in the system Complex Depends of flow characteristics Solidification Time A function of the volume of a casting and its surface area 2 Solidification time = C volume surface area Effects on solidification time
Mold Geometry Skin thickness
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Heat transfer
Temperature distribution in the moldliquid metal interface is shown below.
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Solidification of Metals
Involves liquid metal turning back in to solid metal The process is different for Pure metals and alloys Can be divided into two steps: Formation of stable nuclei Growth of crystals
Pure Metals
Have a clearly defined melting point Temperature remains constant during freezing Solidifies from the walls of the mold toward the center of the part
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Equiaxed Grains
If crystals can grow approximately equally in all directions equiaxed grains will grow. Large amounts of under cooling is needed near the wall of the mold.
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Alloys
Solidification in alloys begins when the temperature drops below the liquidus TL and is complete when it reaches the solidus, TS.
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Alloys
Within the TL and TS Temperature range, the alloy is like a slushy with columnar dendrites
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Shell molding
Shell molding
a mounted pattern, made of a ferrous metal or aluminum, is heated to 175-370 0 C, coated with a parting agent such as silicone, and clamped to a box or chamber containing a fine sand coated with a 2.5 4.0% thermosetting resin binder the sand mixture is blown over the heated pattern, coating it evenly the assembly is placed in an oven to complete the curing of the resin the shell is formed by removing the pattern two half shells are made and are clamped together in preparation for pouring
Shell molding
Advantages
Shell molding
Disadvantages
limits of 30 g to 12 kg )
Shell Molding
Applications -Crankshaft fabrication -Steel casting parts, fittings -Molded tubing fabrication -Hydraulic control housing fabrication -Automotive castings (cylinder head and ribbed cylinder fabrication).
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Expendable Mold
Uses a polystyrene foam pattern which evaporates with molten metal to form a cavity for the casting. Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating system and internal cores (if needed)
Advantages of expanded polystyrene process: 1. Pattern need not be removed from the mold 2. Simplifies and speeds mold-making, because two mold halves are not required as in a conventional green-sand mold Disadvantages: 1. A new pattern is needed for every casting 2. Economic justification of the process is highly dependent on cost of producing patterns
(a)
(b)
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(a) Metal is poured into mold for lost-foam casting of a 60-hp. 3cylinder marine engine; (b) finished engine block.
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Investment Casting
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Die casting
The molten metal is injected into die cavity under high pressure Pressure maintained during solidification Die casting typically makes use of non-ferrous alloys.
The four most common alloys that are die cast are Aluminum alloys, Copper alloys, Magnesium alloys, Zinc alloys
Centrifugal Casting
In this process, the mold is rotated rapidly about its central axis as the metal is poured into it. Because of the centrifugal force, a continuous pressure will be acting on the metal as it solidifies.
The slag, oxides and other inclusions being lighter, get separated from the metal and segregate towards the center. This process is normally used for the making of hollow pipes, tubes, hollow bushes, etc., which are ax- symmetric with a concentric hole.
Centrifugal Casting
Since the metal is always pushed outward because of the centrifugal force, no core needs to be used for making the
Defects
Metallic projections Fins Flash Massive projections Swells Rough surfaces
Cavities Internal or external Blow holes Pin holes Shrinkage cavities Discontinuities Cracks Cold or hot tearing Cold shunts
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Casting Defects
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