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Energy Levels
Valence band electrons are the furthest from the nucleus and have higher energy levels than electrons in lower orbits. The region beyond the valence band is called the conduction band. Electrons in the conduction band are easily made to be free electrons.
Silicon and Germanium are electrically neutral; that is, each has the same number of orbiting electrons as protons. Both silicon and germanium have four valence band electrons, and so they are referred to as tetravalent atoms. This is an important characteristic of semiconductor atoms.
Semiconductor Crystals
Tetravalent atoms such as silicon, gallium arsenide, and germanium bond together to form a crystal or crystal lattice. Because of the crystalline structure of semiconductor materials, valence electrons are shared between atoms. This sharing of valence electrons is called covalent bonding. Covalent bonding makes it more difficult for materials to move their electrons into the conduction band.
For ionic solids such as the nitride, oxide and halide insulators, and compound semiconductors
the motion of electrons (1023) in the solids determines the electrical characteristics of the solid state electronic devices and integrated circuit in vacuum, the motion of a few separately objects Newton Law; F = ma classical law of mechanics for solids there is particle density classical law must be extended
Kristal fotonik (matriks dan bola mempunyai sifat dielektrik yang berbeda) photons scatter in the periodic lattices non-interacting particles berlaku persamaan Maxwell:
Band Diagram electron standing waves allowed energies bands forbidden energies band-gaps
solved exactly
Band Diagram standing waves allowed frequencies bands forbidden frequencies band-gaps
1 e- atom
quantized energy
Extrapolation on 1 crystal
Wave mechanics applied (Schrodinger eqn.) and statistic mechanics Electronic energy levels are arranged in allowed and forbidden bands
results of statistical mechanic analysis at thermodynamic equilibrium give the Fermi-Dirac quantum distribution of the electron kinetic energy in a solid (condensed matter) and Boltzmann classical distribution of electrons and particles in a gas (dilute matter)
band energy
Applied : Planck eqn. (EMR energy and quantized particle wave) E = h de Broglie eqn. (EMR momentum and particle wave ~ 1/) p = h/
Bands formation
interaction/perturbation in the discrete quantized energy level splitting into two discrete energy levels
allowed band
Eg.: System co. 1019 atoms 1e, the width of allowed band energy at r0 = 1 eV if assumed that each eoccupies different energy level and discrete energy level equidistance allowed bands will be separated by 10-19 eV
r0 represents the equilibrium interatomic distance in the crystal The difference of 10-19 eV too small allowed bands to be quasi-continue energy distribution
As 2 atoms get closer, electron interaction was started from valence electron, n=3
At reduced distance : 3s and 3p interacted dan overlap 4 quantum state of upper bands (CB) and 4 quantum state of lower bands (VB) 4 valence e- of Si will occupy lower band
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No gap
Valence band: full 3s bonding
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Magnesium
Magnesium
Conductor
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insulators: gap = forbidden region between highest filled band (valence band) and lowest empty or partly filled band (conduction band) is very wide, about 3 to 6 eV; semiconductors: gap is small - about 0.1 to 1 eV; conductors: valence band only partially filled, or (if it is filled), the next allowed empty band overlaps with it
0 7 53 2
1 1
2 0,5
4 0,35
Eg (eV) (m)
The wide variety of semiconductors band gap tunable wavelength electronic devices
broad range of the IR and visible lights LEDs and lasers
Electron Distribution
Considering the distribution of electrons at two temperatures: Absolute zero - atoms at their lowest energy level. Room temperature - valence electrons have absorbed enough energy to move into the conduction band. Atoms with broken covalent bonds (missing an electron) have a hole present where the electron was. For every electron in the conduction band, there is a hole in the valence band. They are called electron-hole pairs (EPHs). As more energy is applied to a semiconductor, more electrons will move into the conduction band and current will flow more easily through the material. Therefore, the resistance of intrinsic semiconductor materials decreases with increasing temperature. This is a negative temperature coefficient.
If the temperature increases, the valence electrons will gain some thermal energy, and breaks free from the covalent bond It leaves a positively charged hole. In order to break from the covalent bond, a valence electron must gain a minimun energy Eg: Bandgap energy
At 0K, each electron is in its lowest possible energy state, and each covalent bounding position is filled. If a small electric field is applied, the electrons will not move silicon is an insulator
Compound Semiconductor: combination of elements For elemental/intrinsic semiconductor of Si and Ge: the filled valence band of 4 + 4 = 8 electrons For non-intrinsic semiconductor: the filled valence band of 8 electrons constructed by combination of elements of group II-VI and III-V the E for the bandgap will differ from the elemental semiconductors the bandgap will increase as the tendency for the e- to become more localised in atom increases (a function of constituent electronegativities)
Impurities
strongly affects the electronic and optical properties of semiconductor materials
used to vary conductivities from apoor conductor into a good conductor of electric current
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n-type
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Semiconductor Doping
Impurities are added to intrinsic semiconductor materials to improve the electrical properties of the material.
This process is referred to as doping and the resulting material is called extrinsic semiconductor. There are two major classifications of doping materials.
Trivalent - aluminum, gallium, boron Pentavalent - antimony, arsenic, phosphorous
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(a) donation of electrons from donor level to conduction band; (b) acceptance of valence band electrons by an acceptor level, and the resulting creation of holes; (c) donor and acceptor atoms in the covalent bonding model of a Si crystal.