http://www.lab-initio.com/ (nz345.jpg) my office!

Announcements
- Special Homework #5 is due tomorrow. You can download it
here, if necessary:
http://campus.mst.edu/physics/courses/24/Handouts/special_homework.html

Today is our last day on circuits. By the
end of today, you should have mastered
the elementary aspects of dc circuits,
including checking circuit connections.

Contact me by the end of next Wednesdays lecture if you
have special circumstances different than for exam 1.
-Exam 2 is two weeks from yesterday.
Announcements

Todays agenda:

Measuring Instruments: ammeter, voltmeter,
ohmmeter.
You must be able to calculate currents and voltages in circuits that contain real
measuring instruments.

RC Circuits.
You must be able to calculate currents and voltages in circuits containing both a resistor
and a capacitor. You must be able to calculate the time constant of an RC circuit, or use
the time constant in other calculations.

Leftovers.
Optional (not for test) material, if time permits.

You know how to calculate the
current in this circuit:
Measuring Instruments: Ammeter
V
R
.
V
I =
R
If you dont know V or R, you can
measure I with an ammeter.
.
V
I =
R+r
To minimize error the ammeter resistance r should very small.
Any ammeter has a resistance r. Any ammeter has a resistance r. The current you measure is
r
Example: an ammeter of resistance 10 mO is used to measure
the current through a 10 O resistor in series with a 3 V battery
that has an internal resistance of 0.5 O. What is the percent
error caused by the nonzero resistance of the ammeter?
V=3 V
R=10 O
r=0.5 O
Actual current:
V
I =
R+r
3
I =
10+0.5
I = 0.286 A = 286 mA
You might see the symbol c
used instead of V.
V=3 V
R=10 O
r=0.5 O
Current with ammeter:
A
V
I =
R+r +R
3
I =
10+0.5+0.01
I = 0.285 A = 285 mA
R
A

0.286- 0.285
% Error = 100
0.286
% Error = 0.3 % Not bad in a Physics 24 lab!
A Galvanometer
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/galvan.html#c1
When a current is passed through a coil connected to a needle,
the coil experiences a torque and deflects. See the link below
for more details.
An ammeter (and a voltmetercoming soon) is based on a
galvanometer. OK, everything is electronic these days, but the principles here still apply.
Well learn about galvanometers later.
For now, all you need to know is that the
deflection of the galvanometer needle is
proportional to the current in the coil (red).
A typical galvanometer has a resistance of a few tens of ohms.
Hold it right there. Didnt you say an ammeter must have a very
small resistance. Is there a physics mistake in there
somewhere?
A galvanometer-based ammeter uses a galvanometer and a
shunt, connected in parallel:
A
I
G
R
G
R
S
I
G
I
S
I

Everything inside the blue box is the ammeter.
The resistance of the ammeter is
= +
A G S
1 1 1
R R R
=
+
G S
A
G S
R R
R
R R
G
R
G
R
S
I
G
I
S
I
Homework hint: the galvanometer reads 1A full scale
means a current of I
G
=1A produces a full-scale deflection of
the galvanometer needle. The needle deflection is
proportional to the current I
G
.

If you want the ammeter shown to read 5A full scale, then
the selected R
S
must result in I
G
=1A when I=5A. In that
case, what are I
S
and V
AB
(=V
S
)?
A

B

A galvanometer-based ammeter uses a galvanometer and a
shunt, connected in parallel:
G
R
G
R
S
I
G
I
S
I
= +
A G S
1 1 1
R R R
Example: what shunt resistance is required for an ammeter to
have a resistance of 10 mO, if the galvanometer resistance is
60 O?
=
S A G
1 1 1
R R R
( ) ( )
= = = O
G A
S
G A
60 .01
R R
R 0.010
R -R 60-.01
The shunt resistance is chosen so that I
G
does not exceed the
maximum current for the galvanometer and so that the
effective resistance of the ammeter is very small.
(actually 0.010002 O)
To achieve such a small resistance, the shunt is probably a
large-diameter wire or solid piece of metal.
( ) ( )
= = = O
G A
S
G A
60 .01
R R
R 0.010
R -R 60-.01
Web links: ammeter design, ammeter impact on circuit,
clamp-on ammeter (based on principles we will soon be
studying).
Measuring Instruments: Voltmeter
You can measure a voltage by placing a galvanometer in
parallel with the circuit component across which you wish to
measure the potential difference.
V=3 V
R=10 O
r=0.5 O
G
R
G
a b
V
ab
=?
Example: an galvanometer of resistance 60 O is used to
measure the voltage drop across a 10 kO resistor in series with
a 6 V battery and a 5 kO resistor (neglect the internal
resistance of the battery). What is the percent error caused by
the nonzero resistance of the galvanometer?
First calculate the actual voltage drop.
V=6 V
R
1
=10 kO
R
2
=5 kO
a b
= O
3
eq 1 2
R R +R =15 10
= = =
O
-3
3
eq
V 6 V
I 0.4 10 A
R 15 10
( )( )
= O =
-3 3
ab
V =IR 0.4 10 10 10 4 V
The measurement is made with the galvanometer.
V=6 V
R
2
=5 kO
R
1
=10 kO
G
R
G
=60 O
a b
60 O and 10 kO resistors in parallel
are equivalent to an 59.6 O resistor.
The total equivalent resistance is
5059.6 O, so 1.19x10
-3
A of current
flows from the battery.
I=1.19 mA
The voltage drop from a to b is then
measured to be
6-(1.19x10
-3
)(5000)=0.07 V.
The percent error is.

4-.07
% Error = 100=98%
4
Your opinions? Would you pay for this voltmeter?
To reduce the percent error, the device being used as a
voltmeter must have a very large resistance, so a voltmeter
can be made from galvanometer in series with a large
resistance.
V G
R
G
R
Ser

Everything inside the blue box is the voltmeter.
a
b
V
ab
a
b
V
ab
Homework hints: the galvanometer reads 1A full scale would mean a current of I
G
=1A would produce
a full-scale deflection of the galvanometer needle.

If you want the voltmeter shown to read 10V full scale, then the selected R
Ser
must result in I
G
=1A
when V
ab
=10V.
Example: a voltmeter of resistance 100 kO is used to measure
the voltage drop across a 10 kO resistor in series with a 6 V
battery and a 5 kO resistor (neglect the internal resistance of
the battery). What is the percent error caused by the nonzero
resistance of the voltmeter?
We already calculated the actual
voltage drop (3 slides back).
V=6 V
R
1
=10 kO
R
2
=5 kO
a b
( )( )
= O =
-3 3
ab
V =IR 0.4 10 10 10 4 V
The measurement is now made with the voltmeter.
V=6 V
R
1
=10 kO
R
2
=5 kO
G
R
G
=100 kO
a b
100 kO and 10 kO resistors in
parallel are equivalent to an 9090 O
resistor. The total equivalent
resistance is 14090 O, so 4.26x10
-3

A of current flows from the battery.
I=4.26 mA
The voltage drop from a to b is then
measured to be
6-(4.26x10
-3
)(5000)=3.9 V.
The percent error is.

4- 3.9
% Error = 100=2.5%
4
Not great, but much better. Larger R
ser
is needed for high accuracy.
An ohmmeter measures resistance. An ohmmeter is made
from a galvanometer, a series resistance, and a battery.
G
R
G
R
Ser
R=?
The ohmmeter is connected in parallel with the unknown
resistance with external power off. The ohmmeter battery
causes current to flow, and Ohms law is used to determine
the unknown resistance.
O
Measuring Instruments: Ohmmeter
Everything inside the blue
box is the ohmmeter.
To measure a really small resistance, an ohmmeter wont
work.
Solution: four-point probe.
V
A
reference: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/movcoil.html#c4
Measure current and voltage separately, apply Ohms law.

Quiz time (maybe for points, maybe just for practice!)


Todays agenda:

Measuring Instruments: ammeter, voltmeter, ohmmeter.
You must be able to calculate currents and voltages in circuits that contain real
measuring instruments.

RC Circuits.
You must be able to calculate currents and voltages in circuits containing both a resistor
and a capacitor. You must be able to calculate the time constant of an RC circuit, or use
the time constant in other calculations.

Leftovers.
Optional (not for test) material, if time permits.

RC Circuits
RC circuits contain both a resistor and a capacitor (duh).
Until now we have assumed that charge is
instantly placed on a capacitor by an emf.
The approximation resulting from this
assumption is reasonable, provided the
resistance between the emf and the capacitor
being charged/discharged is small.
If the resistance between the emf and the
capacitor is finite, then the charge on the
capacitor does not change instantaneously.
Q
t
Q
t
capacitor
connected
Switch open, no current flows.
Charging a Capacitor
c
R
switch
C
t<0
Close switch, current flows.
t>0
I
Apply Kirchoffs loop rule*
(green loop) at the instant
charge on C is q.
*Convention for capacitors is like batteries: negative if going across from + to -.

q
- - IR=0
C
This equation is
deceptively
complex because
I depends on q
and both depend
on time.
When t=0, q=0 and I
0
=c/R.
Limiting Cases
c
R
switch
C
When t is large, the capacitor
is fully charged, the current
shuts off, and Q=Cc.
I

q
- - IR=0
C

q
- - IR=0
C
Math:
q
I = -
R RC
dq q C q C - q
= - = - =
dt R RC RC RC RC

dq dt
=
C - q RC

dq dt
= -
q- C RC
we want to find how
q varies with time
More math:
0

} }
q t
0
dq dt
= -
q- C RC
( )
0

}
t
q
0
1
ln q- C = - dt
RC

| |
|
\ .
q- C t
ln = -
-C RC

t
-
RC
q- C
= e
-C

t
-
RC
q- C =-C e
Still more math:

t
-
RC
q=C - C e

| |
|
\ .
t
-
RC
q=C 1- e
( )
| |
|
\ .
t
-
RC
q t =Q 1- e
( )

t t t
- - -
RC RC RC
dq C C
I t = = e = e = e
dt RC RC R
RC is the time constant of the circuit; it tells us how fast
the capacitor charges and discharges.
Also:
Charging a capacitor; summary:
( )
| |
|
\ .
t
-
RC
final
q t =Q 1- e
( )

t
-
RC
I t = e
R
Charging Capacitor
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
t (s)
q

(
C
)
Charging Capacitor
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
t (s)
I

(
A
)
Sample plots with c=10 V, R=200 O, and C=1000 F.
RC=0.2 s
recall that this is I
0
,
also called I
max
In a time t=RC, the capacitor charges to Q(1-e
-1
) or 63% of its
capacity
Charging Capacitor
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
t (s)
q

(
C
)
Charging Capacitor
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
t (s)
I

(
A
)
RC=0.2 s
and the current drops to I
max
(e
-1
) or 37% of its maximum.
t=RC is called the time constant of the RC circuit
Capacitor charged, switch
open, no current flows.
Discharging a Capacitor
R
switch
C
t<0
Close switch, current flows.
t>0
I
Apply Kirchoffs loop rule*
(green loop) at the instant
charge on C is q.
*Convention for capacitors is like batteries: positive if going across from - to +.
q
- IR =0
C
+Q
-Q -q
+q
q
- IR =0
C
Math:
q
IR=
C

dq
I =
dt
dq dt
= -
q RC
dq q
-R =
dt C
negative because
charge decreases
More math:
} } }
q t t
Q 0 0
dq dt 1
= - = - dt
q RC RC
( )
}
t
q
Q
0
1
ln q = - dt
RC
| |
|
\ .
q t
ln = -
Q RC
t
-
RC
q(t) =Q e
t t
- -
RC RC
0
dq Q
I(t) =- = e =I e
dt RC
same equation
as for charging
Disharging a capacitor; summary:
( )
0
t
-
RC
I t =I e
Sample plots with c=10 V, R=200 O, and C=1000 F.
RC=0.2 s
t
-
RC
0
q(t) =Q e
Discharging Capacitor
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
t (s)
q

(
C
)
Discharging Capacitor
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
t (s)
I

(
A
)
Discharging Capacitor
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
t (s)
I

(
A
)
Discharging Capacitor
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
t (s)
q

(
C
)
In a time t=RC, the capacitor discharges to Qe
-1
or 37% of its
capacity
RC=0.2 s
and the current drops to I
max
(e
-1
) or 37% of its maximum.
Notes
( )

t
-
RC
I t = e
R
This is for charging a capacitor.
c/R = I
0
= I
max
is the initial current,
and depends on the charging emf
and the resistor.
( )
0
t
-
RC
I t =I e
This is for discharging a capacitor.
I
0
= Q/RC, and depends on how
much charge Q the capacitor
started with.
I
0
for charging is equal to I
0
for discharging only if the
discharging capacitor was fully charged.
Homework Hints
( )
| |
|
\ .
t
-
RC
final
q t =Q 1- e
t
-
RC
0
q(t) =Q e
V=IR
Q(t) =CV(t)
This is always true for a capacitor.
Q
final
= CV, where V is the potential
difference of the charging emf.
Q
0
is the charge on the capacitor
at the start of discharge. Q
0
= Cc
only if you let the capacitor charge
for a long time.
Ohms law applies to resistors, not
capacitors. Sometimes you can get
away with using this. Better to
take dq/dt.
Example: For the circuit shown C = 8 F and V = 30 V.
Initially the capacitor is uncharged. The switch S is then closed
and the capacitor begins to charge. Determine the charge on
the capacitor at time t = 0.693RC, after the switch is closed.
(From a prior test.)

C

V
R
S
To be worked at the
blackboard (if time permits).

Demo

Charging and discharging
a capacitor.

make your own capacitor circuits
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/circuit-construction-kit-ac
more applets
http://webphysics.davidson.edu/physlet_resources/bu_semester2/c11_RC.html
http://subaru.univ-lemans.fr/AccesLibre/UM/Pedago/physique/02/electri/condo2.html
http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/ntnujava/index.php?topic=31.0

Todays agenda:

Measuring Instruments: ammeter, voltmeter, ohmmeter.
You must be able to calculate currents and voltages in circuits that contain real
measuring instruments.

RC Circuits.
You must be able to calculate currents and voltages in circuits containing both a resistor
and a capacitor. You must be able to calculate the time constant of an RC circuit, or use
the time constant in other calculations.

Leftovers.
Optional (not for test) material, if time permits.

EMFs in Series and in Parallel: Charging a Battery
If you put batteries in series the right way, their voltages add:
+ =
6 V

3 V

9 V

+ =
6 V

3 V

3 V

If you put batteries in series the wrong way, their voltages
add algebraically:
magnitudes only

chosen loop direction -6 V

+3 V

-3 V

: algebraically,
using chosen loop
direction

Real quickly some leftover circuits materialif time permits
Why would you want to connect emfs in series?
More voltage! Brighter flashlights, etc. Chemical reactions in
batteries yield a fixed voltage. Without changing the chemical
reaction (i.e., inventing a new battery type), the only way to
change voltage is to connect batteries in series.
Why would you want to connect batteries in series the
wrong way?
You could connect a source of emf like the alternator in your
car so that it charges a battery.
Rechargeable batteries use an ac to dc converter as a source of
emf for recharging.
Go to www.howstuffworks.com to see how batteries work.
They even expose the secret of the 9 volt battery!
Click on the picture above only if you are mature enough to
handle this graphic expos.
Go to www.howstuffworks.com to see how batteries work.
They even expose the secret of the 9 volt battery!
Shocking!
Six 1.5 V batteries in series!
Could you connect batteries (or sources of emf) in parallel?
Sure!
3 V

3 V

You would still have a 3 V voltage drop across your resistor,
but the two batteries in parallel would last longer than a
single battery.
You could use Kirchhoffs rules to analyze this circuit and show
that V
ab
= 3 V.
a

b