Session 3.

iii

Work Measurement
 3.iii.A Work Measurement-
Setting Time Standards
Time study :

Time Study is defined as a work

measurement technique for recording the
times and rates of working for the
elements of a specified job carried out
under specified conditions, and for
analyzing the data so as to obtain the time
necessary for carrying out the job at a
defined level of performance.
 Setting Time Standards
Time Study Equipment :
Equipment used on site for time study
i. Stop Watch
ii. Study Board
iii. Time study Forms
Supplementary Equipment:
i. Calculator.
ii. Reliable clock with a seconds hand.
iii. Measuring instruments such as tape,
steel rule, micrometer, spring balance and
tachometer and or others as needed.
Setting Time Standards
Setting Time Standards
 Setting Time Standards
Time Standard Forms : Time Study forms
stationery is generally printed, photocopied to
record observations on site and one kept on time
study board

Introductory Sheet :
Records information pertaining to study
Records decomposed elements of operation.
Format Layout is shown in slide

Continuation Sheet: Continuation sheets for

subsequent cycles of study.
Short Cycle Study Form
Setting Time Standards
Setting Time Standards
 Setting Time Standards

Study Analysis Sheet : Study analysis sheet is

used for recording results obtained through
study.

Basic time for any elements are calculated from

this sheet

Relaxation Allowance Sheet : Relaxation

allowance sheet is used to compile relaxation
allowances.
 Setting Time Standards
Time Study : Rating

 Most time studies in industry are used to

determine standard times for setting workloads
and as a basis for incentive plans.

 Various methods of assessing the rate of

working, each of which has its good and bad
points, have been developed.
 Setting Time Standards
The Qualified Worker :

 It has already been said that time studies should be

made, as far as possible, on a number of qualified
workers; and that very fast or very slow workers
should be avoided, at least while making the first few
studies of an operation.
 A qualified worker is one who is accepted as having
the necessary physical attributes, who possesses the
required intelligence and education, and who has
acquired the necessary skill and knowledge to carry
out the work in hand to satisfactory standards of
safety, quantity and quality.
 Setting Time Standards
• The acquisition of skill is a complicated process. It
has been observed that among the attributes which
differentiate the experienced worker from the
inexperienced are the following. The experienced
worker.
• Achieves smooth and consistent movement:
• Acquires rhythm :
• Responds more rapidly to signals
• Anticipates difficulties and is more ready to
overcome them:
• Carries out the task without giving the appearance
of conscious attention, and is therefore more
relaxed.
 Setting Time Standards
The Average Worker :
• Rating is the assessment of the workers rate of
working relative to the observers concept of the
rate corresponding to standard pace.
• Rating is a comparison of the rate of working
observed by the work study man with a picture of
some standard level which is holding in his mind.
• This standard level is the average rate at which
qualified workers will naturally work at a job,
when using the correct method and when
motivated to apply themselves to their work.
 Setting Time Standards
Factors affecting The Rate of Working :

• Variations in actual times for a particular

element may be due to factors outside or within
the control of the worker. Those outside his
control may be.
• Variations in the quality or other characteristics
of the material used, although they may be
within the prescribed tolerance limits.
• Changes in the operating efficiency of tools or
equipment within their useful life.
• Minor and unavoidable changes in methods or
conditions of operation.
 Setting Time Standards
• Variations in the mental attention necessary for the
performance of certain of the elements.
• Changes in climate and other surrounding
condition such as lights, temperature etc.
• These can generally be accounted for by taking a
sufficient number of studies to ensure that a
representative samples times is obtained.
• Factors within his control may be.
• Acceptable variations in the quality of the product.
• Variations due to his ability.
• Variations due to his attitude of mind, especially his
attitude to the organization for which he works.
 Setting Time Standards
• The factors within the workers control can effect
the times similarly described elements of work by
affecting.
• The pattern of his movements, his working pace -
both, in varying proportions.
• Study man must therefore have a clear idea of the
pattern of movement which a qualified worker
should follow.
• The optimum pace at which the worker will work
depends on.
• The physical effort demanded by the work.
• The care required on the part of the worker
• His training and experience
 Setting Time Standards
• Greater physical effort will tend to slow up the ace.
• The ease with which the effort is made will also
influence the pace
• Care must be taken to distinguish between slowing
up due to effort and slowing up due to fatigue.
• The studyman should be careful not to rate too
highly when
– The worker is worried or looks hurried
– The worker is obviously being over-careful
– The job looks difficult to the studyman
– The studyman himself is worrying very fast, as
when recording a short element study.
 Setting Time Standards
• Conversely, there is a danger of rating too
low when
– The worker makes the job look easy
– The worker is using smooth, rhythmic
movements.
– The worker does not pause to think when the
studyman expects him to do so.
– The worker is performing heavy manual work.
– The studyman himself is tried.
 Setting Time Standards
Scale of Rating :

• In order that a comparison between the observed

rate of working and the standard rate may be
made effectively, it is necessary to have a
numerical scale against which to make the
assessment.
• There are several scales of rating in use, the most
common of which are those designated the 100 –
133 scale, the 60-80, the 75-100, and the British
Standard Scale used in this book (essentially a
restatement of the 75-100 scale) which is the 0-
100 scale.
 Setting Time Standards

How The Rating Factor is Used :

• The figure 100 represents standard performance.

• If the study man decides that the operation he is
observating is being performed with less effective
speed than his concept of standard, he will use a
factor of less than 100, say 90 or75 or whatever
he considers represents a proper assessment.
• If, on the other hand, he decides that the effective
rate of working is above standard he gives it a
factor greater than 100 – say, 110,115 or 120.
 Setting Time Standards

• It is usual practice to round off rating to the nearest

multiple of five on the scale : that is to say, would be
able to rate nor closely than the nearest ten.

• If the study man's rating were always impeccable,

then however many times he rates and times an
element the result should be that.

• The next is to convert each observed time to a basic

time entering the result in the column headed “BT”
on the time study sheets.
 Setting Time Standards
Basic Time is the time for carrying out an element of work at standard rating i.e.,
Observed Time x Observed Rating
Standard Rating
Extension is the calculation of basic time for observed time
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The effect of extending an observed time for an element to the basic time is
shown graphically in figure below
Effect of extension on the time of an element :
(h) Performance above standard
Observed time OT x (R-100) / 100
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Basic Time
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(b) Performance below standard
Observed Time
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
OT x (R – 100) / 100
Basic Time
 Setting Time Standards
The Selected Time :
• The selected time is the time choose as being
representative of a group of times for an element
or group of elements.
• These times may be either observed or basic
and should be noted as selected observed or
selected basic times.
Constant Elements :
• There are various methods of examining and
selecting the representative basic time for a
constant element.
• Perhaps the most common and in many ways
often the most satisfactory.
 Setting Time Standards
Variable Elements :
• The analysis of variable elements present more
difficulty.
• It is necessary to find out what it is that causes
the basis time to very, and quite often there may
be several variables to take into account at once.
• Time may have to be allowed for cleaning
machines and the workplace and for changing
clothes in industries where special clothing is
required.
• Activities of this sort are not usually taken into
account in the calculation of standard times for
individual jobs but are more often dealt with by
time allowances.
 Setting Time Standards
Allowances :

• Even when the most practical, economic and

effective method has been developed, however,
the job will still require the expenditure of human
effort, and some allowance must therefore be
made for recovery from fatigue and for realization.
• Allowances must also be made to enable a worker
to attend to his personal needs and other
allowances
(e.g. contingency allowances) may also have to be
added to the basic time in order to give the work
content.
 Setting Time Standards
• The most important allowances are :
1) Factors related to the individual
2) Factors related to the nature of the work itself
3) Factors related to the environment

• Calculation of Allowances :
– The basic model for the calculation of
allowances is shown in figure.
– It will be seen from this model that relaxation
allowances (which are intended to aid recovery
from fatigue) are the only essential art of the
time added to the basic time.
– Other allowances, such as conditions, policy
and special allowances, are applied under
certain conditions only.
 Setting Time Standards
Allowances
Personal needs Fixed
Allowance
Basic fatigue Relaxation Total
allowance allowance
Stress and Strain Variable Contingency Basic time
allowances allowances
Environmental

Policy
allowances
Work content

Special
allowances
 Setting Time Standards

• Relaxation Allowances :

– Relaxation allowance is an additional to the

basic time intended to provide the worker with
the opportunity to recover from the physiological
and psychological effects of carrying out
specified work under specified conditions and to
allow attention to personal needs.

– The amount of allowances will depend on the

nature of the job.
 Setting Time Standards
• Relaxation allowances have two major components :
– Fixed allowances
– Variable allowances
• Fixed allowances are composed of :
i. Allowances for personal needs.
a. This allowances provides for the necessity to
leave the workplace to attend to personal needs
such as washing, going to the lavatory and
getting a drink.
b. Common applied by many enterprises range
from 5 to 7 percent.
 Setting Time Standards
i. Allowances for basic fatigue.
a. This allowance, always is constant, is given
to take account of the energy expended
while carrying out work and to alleviate
monotony.
b. A common figure is 4% of basic time.
c. This is considered to be adequate for a
worker who carries out the job while seated,
who is engaged on light work in good
working conditions, and who is called upon
to make only normal use of hands, legs and
senses.
• Variable allowances are added to fixed
allowances when working conditions differ.
 Setting Time Standards

Rest Pauses:
• Rest pauses are important for the following
reasons:
– They decrease the variation in the worker’s
performance throughout the day and tend to
maintain the level nearer the optimum.
– They break up the monotony of the day.
– They give workers the chance to recover from
fatigue and to attend to personal needs.
– They reduce the amount of time off taken by
workers during working hours.
 Setting Time Standards

• Other Allowances :
– It is sometimes necessary to incorporate
allowances other than relaxation allowances in
the compilation of standard time.
– Such allowances are:
i. Contingency allowances.
ii. Policy allowances.
iii. Special allowances.
 Setting Time Standards
• The Standard time :

 It is now possible to obtain a complete picture of the

standard time for a straight forward manual job or
operation, one which is considered t attract only the
two allowances which have so far been discussed
in detail :
a.Contingency allowance and
b.Relaxation allowance
 Setting Time Standards

 The standard time for the job will be the sum of

the standard time for all the elements of which it
is made up, due regard being paid to the
frequencies with which the elements recur, plus
the contingency allowance (with its relaxation
allowance increment).

Standard time is the total time

in which a job should be
completed at standard
 Setting Time Standards
Graphical Representation of Standard Time
for a simple manual job is made up.
Observed time Rating Factor Relaxation Cont. all.
allowance

If performed at a pace
Greater than standard pace.

Basic
Time
Work content

STANDARD TIME
 Setting Time Standards
Problems of Time Study and Fixing
of Time Standards:

Time – Study always be done on the mutual

understanding of the employer and employee.

For carrying out time-study in any industry the

following conditions are necessary :

a) The management must tell the objectives of

such study.
b) The supervisory staff and the workmen should
be taken in confidence.
 Setting Time Standards
a) Standard time should be rigid, should not be
subjected for any change under pressure
except when the method is changed.
b) If the worker wants to see time-study sheet, it
must be open for examination and comment.

• The workers always look with suspicion on time-

study because they feel that they are being forced
to produce more.
• Hence it is necessary that the workers must have
faith and confidence on time-study process and
the time-study man.
 Setting Time Standards
• Basic – Time and Normal – Time :
– Any job is consisting of many work-elements
and each work-element has been timed for a
number of times to suit a particular level of
confidence.
– The machining elements are separated from
manual elements.
– Manual elements are necessarily timed, and one
can avoid the timing of machining elements.
– Representatives time for each manual element
is the average of the recorded data, which is
entered in the analysis sheet will pencil
 Setting Time Standards
Time – Study Sheet
(Analysis)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Department----------------------------- Study No. -------------------------------------------
Operation ------------------------------- Sheet No.
--------------------------------------------
Machine No. ---------------------------- Time on.
---------------------------------------------
Product No. ----------------------------- Time off ---------------------------------------------
Material ----------------------------------- Elapsed Time -------------------------------------
Drawing No. ---------------------------- Operator -------------------------------------------
Clock No. -------------------------------------------
Date --------------------------------------- Studied by -----------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Contd…
 Setting Time Standards

R = Rating factor W.R = Watch reading

S.T. = Subtracted time N.T = Normal or basic time

Description of R. W.R S.T. N.T. Description of R. W.R. S.T. N.T.

work element Work Element
 Setting Time Standards
• After completing the time study sheet, the subtracted
time (S.T) for each element is referred as `Observed-
time’.
• Representative or
Observed – Time (T) = t1 + t2 + t3 + …….tn
----------------------------
n
i=n
T = t/n
I=1
where t is the time for the same element in minute,
and n is the number of observations considered.
 Setting Time Standards
• To convert representative- time into `Normal-Time’
• Normal Time = Representative time x Rating Factor
N.T. = T x R
• Normal – time is computed for constant and variable
man controlled elements.
• Production process is a combination of man controlled
elements and machine controlled elements.
Observed Rating Constant Relaxation
factor allowances allowances
Work delays
Basic time
Work Content
Standard time
 Setting Time Standards
STANDARD TIME
Standard time = Observed time x Rating factor +
Allowances.
This gives a complete picture of the standard time for a manual job or
operation, standard time is the total time in which a job should be
completed at standard performance.
----------------Observed – time -----------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------Normal – time -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Rating factor
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Other

Relaxation allowances
allowances Unavoidable
delays
---------------------Standard – time
-------------------------------------------------------------
 Setting Time Standards
Setting Time-Standards For Machine – Work:
• Consider a situation, where the job is to be
accomplished on machinery, and very often
machining costs are much greater than the total
wage bill of the plant, so it is important that the
installed machinery and equipments must be
extensively used.
• This is done even at the cost of labor productivity
and there is nothing wrong in adopting such
policy, work-study man can decide whether labor
productivity or machine utilization is of primary
importance.
• The most useful technique for studies on machine-
utilization is activity-sampling particularly when
 Setting Time Standards
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Machine maximum time
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Machine – available time Not worked
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Working day per week Over time
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Machine running m/c m/c m/c
time
Idle Ancillary Down

Time Time time

Machine running time of standard Low

performance
 Setting Time Standards
1) Machine utilization index = machine running time
-----------------------------
machine available time
4) Machine efficiency index =
Machine running time at standard
-----------------------------------------------
machine running time
8) Machine effective utilisation index =
Machine running time at standard
----------------------------------------------
Machine available time
 Setting Time Standards
Summary of Time Study Process :

1. Once the method study has been set, a time study

is to be done on new methods to evaluate it.
2. First a preliminary study is undertaken to eliminate
any existing defect in the system and to make the
time study man thoroughly familiar with the new
method.
3. In big and small batch production, this study is
done generally together with the method study in
save time and money.
 Setting Time Standards
1. Next the detailed time study is made together
with an assessment of the operator efficiency.
One or more studies may be made depending
on the importance of the job or the cost of
operation.
2. The main object of time study is to fix the
standard time as a basis for wage payment and
a measure of the efficiency of the organization.
3. The standard time is the only method of
establishing norm of productivity, the
achievement of which is one of the sure ways
for an organization to retain its competitive
position in the market.
 Setting Time Standards

Uses of Time Standards

After completing the Method-Study, it is very

important to detail out from the record:

1. The details of the method being followed.

2. The details of the tools and equipments being
used
3. The details of every feature of the operations
being followed along with the time of operation.
 Setting Time Standards
A. Important points in technical set-up and work
specification by Time Standard:

3. Details of the work-piece or product, on which the

method improvement has been done.
4. Details of the machine or plant on which the
specific operation is scheduled to be carried out
including the speeds, feeds, various toolings and
work-place layout.
5. Details of quality standards desired to obtain on
this product including finish, tolerances, gauging
requirement and other inspection method.
 Setting Time Standards

1. Details of all the work-involved including

repetitive elements, variable elements; setting up
and break down; cleaning, greasing etc
necessary on the machines.
2. Details of all the work-involved including
repetitive elements, variable elements; setting up
and break down; cleaning, greasing etc
necessary on the machines.
3. Details of the conditions under which time-
standards have been set and issued with any
special purpose.
 Setting Time Standards

A. Standard – time defines the standard unit of work.

It indicates so many minutes per piece or so

many pieces per hour. Each time unit has a
component of allowances also.

B. Standard – time used in production planning and

control Plant-utilization Labor utilization.
 Setting Time Standards
Production program can be
prepared, if the following
information's are available.
1. Product to be made and its quantity required.
(Sales and forecasting department must
indicate this information)
2. Operations necessary to carryout the work
particularly specifying plant, equipment, tools
needed and type of labour required. (process
planning and Method Study must provide this
information)
3. Time needed for each operation. (Work –
measurement should indicate this information)
(Plant engineer should give this information in
 Setting Time Standards
1. Plant capacity available (Plant engineering
should give this information in machine hers
available) and labour available (labour office
should provide this information in man hours
available).
A. Standard time is useful for estimation of
production cost in terms of time (minutes) of
production calculated each week. Work
measurement provides actual performance.
B. Standard time is used for incentive-scheme for
different catagories of labour. Incentive schemes
based on work measurement are sound and the
labour would have faith on it.
C. Standard – time provides better control.
 3. iii. C.

Work Sampling
 Work Sampling

• Work Sampling
• Activity sampling
• Ratio delay Study
• Developed by L.H.C. Tippet
Britich Cotton Industry
Research Association in 1934
• A technique which enables information
about an activity, machine, process
by making random observations of the
worker without the use of a stopwatch
• Observation are made over an extended
time to take care of variations
 Work Sampling

Work sampling is a method of

finding the
percentage occurrence of a
certain activity
by statistical sampling and
random observation
 Principles

• A method of work measurement

• Large number of instantaneous observations are
made, at random intervals; over a specified period of
time, of a group of workers, machines or process
• Each observation records the state of observations of
an activity / delay
• Estimate the percentage of time the activity or delay
occurs
• Work sampling is based on the law of probability (Ex:-
Tossing a coin)
 Principles

• If we toss a coin the probability is a head or tail

(50:50)
• If we toss 10 times there can be
55 Heads 45 Tails
48 Heads 52 Tails
• The more number of tosses, the more accurate is
the answer.
• The normal distribution curve
• If we plot the occurrences of a number of
probabilities of combinations we get a smooth curve
as shown below
Curve of Normal Distribution
 Principles
• The curve called normal distribution curve tells us that in the
majority of cases the tendency for the number of heads to equal
the number of track.
• Normal distribution curves may be of different shapes. They
may be flatter or more rounded.
•
x - Average or measure of central distribution
- The deviation from the average called
standard deviation
• The area under the curve of normal distribution can be
calculated
p = Standard in or of production
• p = on both sides of x given 68.27 % of total areas
 Principles

• Two p on both sides gives area 99.45

• Three p on both sides gives area 99.73
• If we base our study on 2 ; 99.45 of our
observations will fall within x + 2 p and 99.73 will fall
within x + 3 p
• In work sampling we commonly use 99.5%
confidence level.
 Procedure to conduct Work Sampling Study
A. Prepare for work sampling study
i. State objective of study
ii. Obtain concurrence of the supervision of department
iii. Establish quantitative measure of activity
iv. Selection of training of personnel
B. Performing Work Sampling
i. Describing and classifying elements
ii. Design of observation form
iii. Determine the period of study
iv. Determine randomized times of observation
v. Observing activity and recording data
vi. Summarizing the data at the end of each day
 Procedure to conduct Work Sampling Study

A. Evaluating and Presenting results of Study

i. Evaluate the validity and reliability of data
ii. Presenting and analyzing data
iii. Planning for future studies

Determine Sample size

Procedure for selecting random observation
Error in work sampling
Conducting the work sampling study
 3. iii. D

Work Study
Predetermined Motion Time Systems
 Work Study
Predetermined Motion Time Systems
• To establish standard time, we have subdivided work
operation into elements of work, description of work,
time taken to perform and add allowances to cover
delays and fatigue etc.
• Later basic motions have been established by
photographic / video studies by go / breath and these
standardized motions are called “Therbligs”.
Expansion of these studies by Taylor and Gilbreth has
resulted in “Predetermined elemental times” (PDTM)
using PDTM.
 Work Study
Predetermined Motion Time Systems…
• Defined as work measurement where by the time
established for basic human motions are used to build
up the time for a job at a defined level of
performance.
• While using the systems for establishing elemental
times, care is necessary to analyze component
motions going into a much greater detail than done in
method study analysis.
• Earlier these systems were considered suspicious but
are now being widely accepted even in Indian
industries.
 Work Study
Predetermined Motion Time Systems…
• Example: Drilling Operation
Pick up part
Move to spindle

• MTM Fundamental Motions

Reach Position
Move Disengage
Apply Pressure Release
Turn
Grasp
 Work Study
Predetermined Motion Time Systems…
Pedal & Trunk Motions
• Side set-up
• Turn body
• Walk
• Bend
• Stoop
• Kneel on one leg
• Kneel on both leg
• Foot motions
• Sit
 MTM Application Procedure
METHOD TIME MEASUREMENT
Determine the standard time for the most
economical method:
4. Establish Basic Method.
5. Operational Basic Method.
a. Quality specification
b. Production equipment
c. Equipment / accessories and tools used
d. Location of plant and working condition
e. Material used
f. Component drawing
g. Operations involved.
 MTM Application Procedure
1. Prepare detailed elemental breakdown
a. Break activity into work elements and then MTM
motions.
b. Describe element and record description.
c. Record on MTM analysis sheet the various
motions to be carried out by both hands.
d. Check motion sequence.
e. Sign the study sheet.

2. Carryout the complete study.

 MTM Application Procedure

Assign TMU’s to each element synthesize and arrive at

the total time:

 Convert TMU’s into equivalent time valves.

 Add necessary allowance.
 Compute and record the allowed time per element
and then per operation.

One can also use simplified MTM data

 Source: Work Study and O&M
by Andhra Pradesh Productivity Control
Publisher: Andhra Pradesh Productivity Control