UNIT I

Introduction to Computers

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OBJECTIVES
1.1 Introduction to computer 1.2 Characteristics of computer 1.3 Evolution of computer 1.4 Classification of computers 1.5 Generations of computers 1.6 Basic computer Organization
1.7 Number System
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1.1 Introduction

Definition:
Computer is an electronic device that takes input from the user, processes the given input and generates output in the form of useful information.

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Introduction Contd..

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Introduction Contd..
Computer Performs computations and makes logical decisions Millions / billions times faster than human beings Computer programs Sets of instructions for which computer processes data Hardware Physical devices of computer system Software Programs that run on computers
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Introduction Contd..

Definition: Introduction To Computer Software Operating system Problem solving Techniques Computer Prog ramming languages Computer Threats

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Computer Hardware
Motherboard Power switch Reset switch Hard drive Floppy CD/DVD Serial ports Parallel port
Keyboard/mouse Network card Modem Sound card Video card RAM Fan Cables USB port

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Computer Hardware Contd..

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Components of CPU
Motherboard : Printed Circuit Board (PCB). Processor: Heart of the computer. Ram chips: Used to hold data and program temporarily. SMPS: Switch Mode Power Supply. Converts AC supply to 5v and 12v DC. ROM Chips: This have the booting program of the computer. Disk Drives: Computer permanent storage Unit.
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1.2 Characteristics of computers

1- Speed
Computer can perform millions of instructions and even more per second The speed of computer is measured in terms of microsecond (10-6 second) or nanosecond (10-9 second) The speed of a computer generally depends upon its hardware configuration

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Characteristics Contd..
2- Accuracy

The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed with the same accuracy
The errors in computer are due to human and inaccurate data

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Characteristics Contd..
3- Diligence Computers can perform repetitive calculations any number of times with the same accuracy

It can work for hours without creating any error Due to this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of work
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Characteristics Contd..
4- Versatility

Computers are versatile machines It can perform completely different type of works and can be used for different purposes

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Characteristics Contd..
5- Reliability A computer produces results without any error Most of the errors generated are human errors that are created by the user itself 6- No IQ (intelligence quotient)

Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the user and it cannot take its own decision as you can
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Characteristics Contd..
7- No Feeling It does not have feelings it does not get tired even after long hours of work 8- Storage The Computer has an main memory and store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, CDs Flash Memory which can be kept outside your computer and can be carried to other computers.
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Application
Education Banking Airline and Railway Reservation Payment of Electricity and Telephone Bill Medical Diagnosis Weather Forecasting Cartoon Film Production
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1.3 Evolution Of Computers

1.3.1 Manual Computing Devices

i) The first calculating device was called Sand Table. It used stones for representing numbers. It is used to perform addition operation.
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Fig. 1.2: Abacus Computer

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Evolution Contd..
ii) 5000 years back an ABACUS is used for arithmetic operations. It consists of beads, wires and woodern frame. Calculations are performed by sliding beads. iii) In 1814,English mathematician John Napier built a mechanical device Napiers bones for the purpose of multiplication of 2 numbers.

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Evolution Contd..
1.3.2 Automatic Computing Machine i) Difference Engine:
It was developed in the year 1822 by Charles Babbage (father of computer)

It was the first automatic computing device It was capable of solving numerical problems
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Evolution Contd..
ii) MARK I :
It was designed in 1944, by an American mathematician, Howard Aiken It was capable of multiplying 20 figures in 6 sec It was noisy and large in size
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Evolution Contd..

iii) Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator(ENIAC):

It was a general purpose electronic digital computer developed in the year 1946

It used 17,468 vaccum tubes and capable of solving any types of computing problems
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Evolution Contd..
iv) Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic
Computer (EDVAC)
It was invented by John Eckert and John Mauchly in 1949 It was considered as the successor of ENIAC. It was capable of processing alphabets and numbers It used 5200 vaccum tubes
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1.5 Computer Generations

Generation 1: Vacuum Tube Computers Generation 2: Transistor Computers Generation 3: Integrated Circuits Generation 4: Microprocessors

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1 - First Generation Computers

First generation computers used vaccum tubes These computers were large in size writing programs on them was difficult Some of the computers of this generation were:
ENIAC EDVAC EDSAC ( Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer ) UNIVAC-1
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First Generation : ENIAC

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Limitations of First Generation Computers

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The operating speed was quite slow Power consumption was very high It required large space for installation The programming capability was quite low Machine language Special purpose computer Not easily transferable Execute only one program at a time More fault Because of more heat.
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2-Second Generation Computers

Around 1955 a device called Transistor replaced the bulky electric tubes in the first generation computer Light weight electronic device. Smaller,Faster,Cheaper,More efficient, More productive more reliable. Replacing Machine language with assembly language. They have no filament and require no heating. Manufacturing cost was also very low
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Second Generation Contd..

In the second generation, the concept of Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, input and output units were developed Some of the computers of the Second Generation were: IBM 1620: used for scientific purpose. IBM 1401: used for business applications. CDC 3600: Its size was large and is used for scientific purposes.
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Second Generation : IBM7094

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3 - Third Generation Computers

It was introduced in 1964 They used Integrated Circuits (ICs) Some of the computers developed during this period were: IBM-360 ICL-1900 I BM-370 VAX-750
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Third Generation : Integrated Circuits

Computers of this generations were small in size low cost, large memory processing speed is very high
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4-Fourth Generation Computers

It uses large scale Integrated Circuits (LSIC) built on a single silicon chip called microprocessors These computers are very small These computers are called microcomputers

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Fourth Generation: VLSI

Improvements to IC technology made it possible to integrate more and more transistors in a single chip SSI (Small Scale Integration): 10-100 MSI (Medium Scale Integration): 1001,000 LSI (Large Scale Integration): 1,00010,000 VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration): >10,000

Microprocessors

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5-Fifth Generation Computer

It was introduced in 1990s The speed is extremely high and it can perform parallel processing The concept of Artificial intelligence has been introduced to allow the computer to take its own decision It is still in a developmental stage

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Fifth Generation :Examples

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1.6 TYPES OF COMPUTERS

1-Microcomputers
2-Mini Computers 3-Mainframe computers 4-Supercomputers

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1.6.1 Microcomputers
Micro computers are generally available in the form of PCs, workstations and notebook computers. Provides access to a wide variety of computing applications, such as word processing, photo editing, e-mail, and internet.

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Block Diagram of a Mirco Computer

Peripheral devices

Interface circuitry Microprocessor System Bus

Memory
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1.6.2 Mini Computers

A mini computer was first introduced in the year 1960 by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) They are smaller in size The mini computer is used in multi-user system in which various users can work at the same time.

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Mini Computers Contd..

This type of computer is generally used for processing large volume of data in an organization

They are also used as servers in Local Area Networks (LAN) Examples: PDP11, IBM(8000 series), VAX 75000 etc
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1.6.3 Mainframes
These types of computers are generally 32-bit microprocessors. They operate at very high speed They have very large storage capacity and can handle the work load of many users They are generally used in centralized databases. They are also used as controlling nodes in Wide Area Networks (WAN)

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Mainframe : Examples
Example of mainframes are VAX 8000, CDC 6600 and IBM 3000 series

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1.6.4 Supercomputers
They are the fastest and most expensive machines They have high processing speed compared to other computers They have also multiprocessing technique One of the ways in which supercomputers are built is by interconnecting hundreds of microprocessors
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Supercomputers Contd..
Supercomputers are mainly being used for whether forecasting Nuclear research Fluid mechanics Animated graphics aircraft design other areas of science and technology. Examples of supercomputers are: CRAY 3, Cyber 205, NEC SX-3 .
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1.6. Basic computer Organization

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Basic computer Organization

Memory

Input Devices

Output Devices

CPU

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Block diagram of a computer system

Input Unit

Memory Unit

Output Unit

Registers

Arithmetic and Logic Unit

Control Unit

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CPU DCE FOC

Input Unit
This is the receiving sections of the computer.

Accept data and Instruction from the user Convert it to a form that the computer can understood Example: 1. Keyboard

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In which data is entered by manually typing certain keys A keyboard typically has 101 or 105 keys It is a pointing device
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2. Mouse

Input Devices

A device that sends

Modem
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and receives data to and from computers over telephone lines.

Central Processing Unit

It performs all calculations and all decision It controls and co-ordinates all units of the computer It interprets instructions of a program It sent back data to the storage unit

The sub divisions are

1) Control unit This is the administrative section of the computer. 2) Arithmetic and logical unit 3) Registers This is the manufacturing
section of the computer.
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Central Processing Unit cont

Control Unit: Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output
Arithmetic/Logic Unit: It executes all arithmetic and logical operations. addition (+) subtraction (-) multiplication (*) division (/) equal to (=) less than (<) greater than (>) less than or equal to (<=) greater than or equal to (>=) less than or greater than (< V >) DCE FOC

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How does the CPU work?

Each instruction takes a machine cycle Computers have a clock Instruction Set: Each CPU executes a specific set of operations, i.e. instructions

Control Unit

2. Decode
1. Fetch

3. Execute

Arithmetic/ Logic Unit

4. Store

Memory

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Memory Unit
To store data, instructions or processing data, intermediate results of processing and final processed information.
Primary Memory (Ram, Rom)
A device that stores program instructions or data temporarily Installed on the Motherboard Comprised of ICs This is the rapid access, relatively low-capacity

warehouse section of the computer. Secondary Memory (Hard disk, Floppy disk etc.,)
Non Volatile and long term Storage Holds larger amounts of data Not as fast as primary memory
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This is the long term, high capacity warehousing section of the computer.

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Difference between RAM & ROM

ROM
Non-volatile Cost effective High Storage capacity

RAM
Volatile Very high Small storage capacity

Processing speed is low

OS supporting programs can be stored
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High
User-defined programs can be stored any time

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Secondary Storage
Secondary storage is separate from the processing unit Software and data can be stored on a permanent basis Secondary storage is necessary because primary storage can be used only temporarily and it has limited capacity.
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Secondary Storage Contd..

CD-ROM (compact disk read-only memory) has a disk format identical to that of audio compact disks Regular CD-ROMs can hold up to 700 megabytes per disk CD-RW technology permits writing on optical disks DVD-ROM, for digital video disk has astonishing storage capacity, up to 17GB if both layers and both sides are used.
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Secondary Storage Contd..

Flash Memory: An electronic circuitry that offers a nonvolatile and rewritable type of memory It functions like a combination of RAM and hard disk Flash memory cards are used in digital cameras, cell phones, printers, handheld computers, pagers, and audio recorders

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Output Unit
This is the shipping section of the computer.

Communication between user and the computer Output Unit is an electronic device used to communicate the output obtained after processing to the user It converts the binary data into user readable form Example: Printer, Monitor, and Speakers

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Output device : Monitor

Display device that forms an image by converting electrical signals from the computer into pixels of colored light on the screen

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Output device : Printer

Output device that produces text or graphical images on paper

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Output device : Speakers

Output devices that receive signals from the computers sound card to play music, narration, or sound effects
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1.7 Number System

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Representing Information
Data is stored using Binary Digits
BITS

Binary means 2 states

represented by 1 (on) or 0 (off)

Does the computer actually store a bunch of 1s and 0s ?????

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Representing Information

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Nibbles, Bits, and Bytes

BIT (one digit) NIBBLE (4 bits, or 1/2 a byte) BYTE (8 bits)
every letter, symbol, or number can be represented by one byte

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Bits and Bytes

Storage capacity

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Number System
Inside the computer, the numbers are represented in bits and bytes. For example, the number three is represented by 00000011
The number system can be classified into 1. Decimal Number System 2. Binary Number System 3. Octal Number System 4. Hexadecimal Number System
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Number System Contd..

In a number the value of each digit is determined by using three considerations 1. The digit 2. The position of the digit in the number 3. The base or radix of the number system

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Decimal Number System

In this number system the base or radix is 10 The digits are 0 to 9 Example: 4326 This can be written as 6 x 10 0 2 x 10 1 3 x 10 2 4 x 10 3 = 4 x 10 3 + 3 x 10 2 + 2 x 10 1 + 6 x 10 0
=
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4326
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Binary Number System

The number system that is used in the computer systems The base or radix of binary number system is 2 It has only two numbers 0 and 1. Example (100111)2 is equivalent to (39)10
1x2 5 +0x2 4 +0x2 3 +1x2 2 +1 x 2 1 +1x2 0

= 32+0+0+4+2+1
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= (39)10

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Octal Number System

The base or radix of octal number system is 8 It uses digits 0 to 7 Example: (67)8 is equivalent to (55)10

6 x 8 1 + 7 x 8 0 = 48 +7 = (55)10
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Hexadecimal Number System

The hexadecimal number system has a base of 16 16 digits are: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E and F. Example : 1. Hexadecimal equivalent for (14)10 is (E)16

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Table for Binary and hexadecimal equivalents

Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Binary 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110

7
8

7
8

0111
1000

9
10 11 12 13 14 15
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9
A B C D E F
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1001
1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

Conversion of Decimal Number System

Decimal to binary system Decimal to octal system Decimal to hexadecimal system

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Conversion from one Number System to another

Binary
Group by 3 digits

by base 8

Group by 4

Decimal
X positional value by power of 2

Octal

Hexa Decimal
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Steps for Decimal to Binary conversion

1. Divide the given decimal number with the base 2 2. Iteratively divide the quotient by the same base 2 until it is divisible and obtain the remainder 3. The resultant binary number is formed by collecting all the remainders (the first remainder is the least significant digit and the last remainder is the most significant digit).

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Steps for Decimal to Octal conversion

1. Divide the given decimal number with the base 8 2. Iteratively divide the quotient by the same base 8 until it is divisible and obtain the remainder 3. The resultant octal number is formed by collecting all the remainders

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Steps for Decimal to Hexadecimal conversion

1. Divide the given decimal number with the base 16 2. Iteratively divide the quotient by the same base 16 until it is divisible and obtain the remainder 3. The resultant hexadecimal number is formed by collecting all the remainders

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Conversion of Binary Number System

Binary to decimal conversion Binary to octal conversion Binary to hexadecimal conversion

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Steps for Binary to Decimal conversion

1. Represent all the digits in the power of 2. 2. Multiply and then add the corresponding digits. Ex: (100)2 = 1 x 2 2 + 0 x 2 1 + 0 x 2 0 =(5)10

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Steps for Binary to Octal conversion

1. The base of the binary is 2 and the octal is 8. The base for the octal number is 3rd power of the base o binary. Therefore grouping 3 digits of binary number. 2. The grouped binary number is the octal equivalent. Ex: (111101100)2 = 111 101 100 = (7 5 4)8
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Steps for Binary to Hexadecimal conversion

The base of the binary is 2 and the hexadecimal is 16(24). Grouping 4 digits of binary number The grouped binary number is the hexadecimal equivalent Ex: (111101100)2 = 0001 1110 1100 = (1EC)16
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Conversion of Octal Number System

Octal to decimal conversion Octal to binary conversion Octal to hexadecimal conversion

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Steps for Octal to Decimal conversion

1. Represent all the digits in the power of 8 2. Multiply and then add the corresponding digits Ex: (516)8 = 5 x 8 2 +1 x 8 1 + 6 x 8 0 =324
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Steps for Octal to Binary Conversion

1.Represent each digit of octal number in binary form. 2. Combine the binary form of each digit to get the binary number.

Ex: (516)8 =(101 001 110)2

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Steps for Octal to Hexadecimal conversion

Octal to hexadecimal conversion cannot performed directly. Therefore we need the help of binary number. Octal Binary Hexadecimal

Ex: (345)8 = (011 100 101)2 =(0000 1110 0101) =(0E5)16

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