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Topics to be Covered
PCC
Topics Covered
Introduction
Quality
of Concrete:
Chemical Composition of PC Hydration and Development of Microstructure, Admixtures, and Aggregate Characteristics
Introduction
Quality
Depends on:
Mixing Method Transportation Placement Curing in Field
Elasticity Materials Engineer Designs Mix (Proportioning, Mixing, Placement and Curing) Proportioning Affects Plastic as well as Hardened PCC Performance Unless Specified, Strength is
Avg. Strength of Three Tests Specimen Size is 6 by 12 in. Compressive Strength after 28 days of Curing
Acceptable Workability of Freshly Mixed PCC (Plastic PCC) Durability, Strength, and Uniform Appearance of Hardened Concrete Economy
to Determine Proportions of Cement, Water, Fine and Coarse Aggregates, and Use of Admixtures Several Mix Design Methods
From: Arbitrary Volume Method (1:2:3 Cement:Sand:Coarse Aggregate) To: Weight and Absolute-Volume ACI Methods Weight Method is Simple and Based on Unit Wt. of PCC Absolute-Volume Uses Sp. Gr. Of Each Ingredient Absolute-Volume Method is More Accurate Main Difference Between Two Methods Amount of Fine Aggregates
3.
Evaluate Strength Requirements Determine Water-Cement Ratio Evaluate Coarse Aggregate Requirements
a) b)
4. 5. 6.
Determine Air Entrainment Requirements Evaluate Workability Requirements of the Plastic Concrete Estimate the Water Content Requirements
9. 10.
11.
Determine Cement Content and Type Evaluate the Need and Application Rate of Admixtures Evaluate Fine Aggregate Requirements Determine Moisture Corrections Make and Test Trial Mixes
Aggregates
Gravels, crushed rock, and sands, etc May occupy 75% of normal mixes Will influence all aspects of the concrete
Durability Structural performance Cost
Aggregate Quality
Aggregate should not contain materials which are likely to
Decompose/change in volume (e.g. coal, clay) React with cement paste (e.g. certain siliceous compounds (ASR)) Affect appearance of concrete (e.g. salt, pyrites)
Aggregate Cleanliness
Should be free from dust, clay, etc Sea dredged aggregate may be contaminated with chlorides Excessive washing is costly and may wash away fines Shape will affect workability and durability Gradation (well-graded, gap-graded etc)
Types of Aggregate
naturally occurring or industrial products
1. Normal density aggregates (most widely used) 2. Lightweight aggregates
pumice, expanded clay Leca, PFA - Lytag, Expanded Slag - Pellite
3. High density aggregate (e.g., lead) 4. Fibres (e.g. asbestos, wood, steel, glass, polymers)
Water
If you can drink it it is OK! Sea water can sometimes be used for mass concrete, but not reinforced concrete
Admixtures
Added to concrete during mixing to modify particular properties of concrete
Accelerators - (CaCl) NaCl, formate triethenolamine Retarders - Gypsum, sugars, lignosulphates Air Entrainers - Wood resins/soaps, fats and oils Water reducers (plasticizers) Others - Corrosion Inhibiting Admixtures
Strength Requirements
Variations in material, batching and mixing of PCC results in strength deviations Structural designer does not consider variability If material is provided with an avg. strength, half of placed material will be weaker than desired
Strength Requirements
Three
Quantities Needed
Specified Compressive Strength Variability or Standard Deviation of Plant Allowable Risk : ACI Suggests A Risk of 10%
Strength Requirements
90% of area under the curve has to be to the right of specified compressive strength
fcr = fc +1.34s fcr : Required Avg. Compressive Strength fc: Specified Compressive Strength s: Standard Deviation
Strength Requirements
Strength Requirements
Standard deviation at least from 30 strength tests If not available use modification factors and use linear interpolation for intermediate No. of tests Multiply modification factor with s
Number of Tests 15 20 25 30 or More Modification Factor, k 1.16 1.08 1.03 1.00
Strength Requirements
Very Conservative and Should Not be Used for Large Projects Not Economical
Prepare Three Trial Batches to Develop Relationship Similar to Previous Figure Use Table For Estimating Water-Cement Ratios for Trial Mixes
For Small Projects Use Table in Lieu of Trial Mixes (Conservative Table) Not For Trial Batches
Type of Materials
Chemical Exposure
Aggregate grading has little direct effect on strength It does affect workability, and hence w/c ratio. Large-Dense Graded Aggregate Most Economical Mix Round Aggregate Require Less Water Than Angular Aggregates
Aggregate Grading
fundamental idea is that finer stones fill up gaps between larger stones, and remaining space is filled by cement paste.
% passing
50
Maximum allowable aggregate size depends on dimensions of structure and capabilities of construction equipment
Maximum Aggregate Size 1/5 of Min. Clear Distance
Clear Space Between Reinforcement or Prestressing Tendons Clear Space Between Reinforcement and form Unreinforced Slab
PCC Exposed to Freeze-Thaw Condition and De-icing Salts In Some Cases to Increase Workability Level of Entrainment Depends on Level of Exposure Mild Moderate Severe
Workability
The
ease with which a concrete mix can be handled from mixer to its finally compacted shape
Consistency - fluidity Mobility - ease of flow Compactability - ease of compaction
Internal
Given Slump Depends on Maximum Size and Shape of Aggregates and Air Entrainer
Reduced Take
Round Gravel
27(45)
334 Kg/m3 (564 lb/yd3) Min. for Severe Freeze-Thaw 385 Kg/m3 (650 lb/yd3) Min. for PCC Under Water
Weight Design Mix Method Uses Table Weight of Fine Aggregate is Determined by Subtracting from Total Weight of Other Ingredients
Overview
1. Properties of Fresh Concrete
Workability, Segregation, Bleeding, and Heat of Hydration Strength Deformation Creep Shrinkage
Workability Requirements
Generally
implies the ease with which a concrete mix can be handled from mixer to its finally compacted shape
Consistency - fluidity Mobility - ease of flow Compactability - ease of compaction
Internal
Slump Test (US) Compacting factor test Vebe time test Flow test
Slump Test
100
Developed in 1913 in US, by Chapman Required Slump cone Tamping Rod Ruler Suitable for normal mixes of medium to high workability
300
200
True slump
Shear slump
Collapse slump
mixed concrete put in top hopper allowed to fall into 2nd hopper then cylinder cylinder stuck off, concrete weighed and compared with weight of fully compacted cylinder
Other tests
Vebe
test - time for standard cone to be compacted flat by glass plate on vibrating table
for
Flow
test - the measured spread in mm of a standard cone on a dropping table (40mm, 15 times) of these popular on site
Neither
Workability Requirements
Segregation
The tendency for
sand-cement mortar to separate from coarse aggregate cement mortar to separate from fine aggregate
Caused by
Excessive vibration Dropping fresh concrete from a height Poor grading High workability Mixes with no air entrainment
Bleeding
Tendency for water to rise to the surface
This will cause weakness or dustiness of the surface of the finished concrete, or a line of weakness between pours Bleeding affected largely by the properties of the cement. Avoided by a finer cement high C3A content richer mix
Heat of Hydration
Exothermic reaction during setting can cause a significant temperature rise in large concrete pours. This causes expansion, then setting, then contraction. If the pour is restrained, or has a temperature differential, cracking may occur
Creep
Load sustained Load removed Immediate elastic recovery Creep Creep recovery Permanent deformation
Creep
Magnitude of creep is affected by
More cement in mix - more creep Higher w/c ratio - more creep Higher relative humidity - lower creep Greater age - lower creep Rapid Hardening - lower creep
100 50
Mixing
Drum mixer - common on site Pan Mixer - larger sizes, industry, labs etc By hand - to be avoided where possible Ready mix - most often used for sites
Placing
By skip, wheelbarrow, shute, shovel or concrete pump Place at final position - do not vibrate into position Vibrate using poker - approx 10 seconds at 0.5 m intervals Level with wooden float, leave for a while, then finish with steel float
Visual Inspection+
Probably the most important assessment Equipment
Notebook, camera, binoculars, ladder
To observe
Cracks, spalling, honeycombing Rust stains, flaking paint, efflorescence Delamination, a planar crack at rebar depth
tap with a hammer and listen for a dull sound or use infra-red thermography or radar
Carbonation
Equipment
Phenolphthalein Solution
Limitations
Phenolphthalein turns pink at pH 9, but depassivation can take place at pH 11 Surface must be freshly exposed - destructive
Chlorides
Usually involves taking powdered samples and measuring
total (acid soluble) chlorides water soluble
Resistivity
As corrosion is electro-chemical, the resistance of the concrete will have a bearing on the corrosion rate A four probe resistivity meter can be used
two outer probes pass a current inner probes measure voltage difference
Curing
If left in contact with water, concrete will continue to gain strength for many months Otherwise all free water evaporates or is used up in the hydration process, and no further hydration can continue Curing ensures that water for hydration is available as long as possible
Curing
Air-cured after 1 and 3 months, dry at test
100
50
0 0 6 Age (months)
12
Shrinkage
3 principal types of shrinkage/expansion:
Plastic Shrinkage - caused by settlement of solids and loss of free water from plastic concrete. Autogenous Shrinkage - Cement gel has a lower volume than the water and cement that makes it. So at a constant water content shrinkage takes place. Drying Shrinkage - Loss of water from cement gel, after loss of water from pores and capillaries.
Drying Shrinkage
Expansion in water
Shrinkage in air
Concrete Durability
Definition
Resistance to physical and chemical deterioration of concrete resulting from
Interaction with environment - external Interaction between constituents - internal
Durability
Concrete Deterioration
Physical Deterioration
Chemical Deterioration
Reinforcement Corrosion
Reinforcement Corrosion
Significant corrosion of steel will take place only as a result of electro-chemical or galvanic action. In the absence of dissimilar metals, corrosion is initiated by local imperfections in the metal (e.g. different steel crystalline structures) or local differences in the concentration of electrolyte.
H2O droplet
Steel rebar
electrons
Fe2+
Durability
Concrete Deterioration
Physical Deterioration
Chemical Deterioration
Reinforcement Corrosion
Carbonation
Chlorides
Carbonation
Step 1 H2O+CO2 = HCO3- + H+ HCO3- = CO32- + H+ Step 2 Ca(OH)2 + 2H+ + CO32= CaCO3 +2H2O This neutralisation reaction penetrates gradually from the concrete surface. Penetration = k x time1/2
Carbon Dioxide
The most important greenhouse gas Global concentration has increased from 270 to 350 ppm since 1700 Expected 500 ppm by 2050
4 16 36 64
Durability
Concrete Deterioration
Physical Deterioration
Chemical Deterioration
Reinforcement Corrosion
Carbonation
Chlorides
Chlorides
Very high concentrations can lead to deterioration of concrete,
Ca(OH)2 is leached from the cement paste increasing porosity and decreasing strength
In sufficient concentrations Cl- ions can break down the passive oxide film on the rebar, and allow the corrosion process to start
Sources of Chlorides
Contact with sea water From de-icing salts From beach or sea dredged aggregates From accelerators (chloride-based admixtures now prohibited, however)
Humidity, alternate wetting and drying Temperature - worse in hot climates Concrete permeability and chloride binding capacity, cement content and type
PFA and GGBS will help resist chloride ingress
Type of Cement
60
30
50 Strength (Mpa)
70
Durability
Concrete Deterioration
Physical Deterioration
Chemical Deterioration
Reinforcement Corrosion
Durability
Concrete Deterioration
Physical Deterioration
Chemical Deterioration
Reinforcement Corrosion
Sulphate
Acid
Sea water
Alkaliaggregate reaction
Leaching
Sulphate attack
Sources - Ground water, Industrial fill, Lake and sea water Reactions
Sulphates + Calcium Hydroxide = Calcium Sulphate (gypsum) Sulphates + Calcium Aluminate = Ettringite
Durability
Concrete Deterioration
Physical Deterioration
Chemical Deterioration
Reinforcement Corrosion
Sulphate
Acid
Sea water
Alkaliaggregate reaction
Leaching
Durability
Concrete Deterioration
Physical Deterioration
Chemical Deterioration
Reinforcement Corrosion
Sulphate
Acid
Sea water
Alkaliaggregate reaction
Leaching
Durability
Concrete Deterioration
Physical Deterioration
Chemical Deterioration
Reinforcement Corrosion
Sulphate
Acid
Sea water
Alkaliaggregate reaction
Leaching
Durability
Concrete Deterioration
Physical Deterioration
Chemical Deterioration
Reinforcement Corrosion
Sulphate
Acid
Sea water
Alkaliaggregate reaction
Leaching
Durability
Concrete Deterioration
Physical Deterioration
Chemical Deterioration
Reinforcement Corrosion
Durability
Concrete Deterioration
Physical Deterioration
Chemical Deterioration
Reinforcement Corrosion
Cracking
Frost
Attrition
Fire
Durability
Concrete Deterioration
Physical Deterioration
Chemical Deterioration
Reinforcement Corrosion
Cracking
Frost
Attrition
Fire
Durability
Concrete Deterioration
Physical Deterioration
Chemical Deterioration
Reinforcement Corrosion
Cracking
Frost
Attrition
Fire
Durability
Concrete Deterioration
Physical Deterioration
Chemical Deterioration
Reinforcement Corrosion
Cracking
Frost
Attrition
Fire