ELASTICITY

Elasticity
Elasticity of Composites
Viscoelasticity
Elasticity: Theory, Applications and Numerics
Martin H. Sadd
Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford (2005)
Revise modes of deformation, stress, strain and other basics (click here) before starting this chapter etc.
What kind of mechanical behaviour phenomena does one have to understand?
Elasticity
Plasticity
Fracture
Fatigue
Mechanical Behaviour
Creep Elongation at constant load at High temperatures
Phenomenologically mechanical behaviour can be understood as in the flow diagram
below.
Multiple mechanisms may be associated with these phenomena (e.g. creep can occur by
diffusion, grain boundary sliding etc.).
These phenomena may lead to the failure of a material.
Note: above is a broad classification for convenience. E.g. Creep is also leads to plastic deformation!
Recoverable deformation
Permanent deformation
Propagation of cracks in a material
Oscillatory loading
Elastic
Plastic
Deformation
Instantaneous
Time dependent
Instantaneous
Time dependent
Recoverable
Permanent
Anelasticity
Viscoelasticity
Elasticity
Elasticity
Linear
Non-linear
E.g. Al deformed at small strains
E.g. deformation of an elastomer like rubber
Elastic deformation is reversible deformation- i.e. when load/forces/constraints are
released the body returns to its original configuration (shape and size).
Elastic deformation can be caused by tension/compression or shear forces.
Usually in metals and ceramics elastic deformation is seen at low strains (less than ~10
3
).
The elastic behaviour of metals and ceramics is usually linear.
m n
r
B
r
A
U + =
A,B,m,n constants
m > n
Attractive
Repulsive
Atomic model for elasticity
dr
dU
F =
1 1 + +
+ =
m n
r
mB
r
nA
F
q p
r
B
r
A
F
' '
+ =
Let us consider the stretching of bonds (leading to elastic deformation).
Atoms in a solid feel an attractive force at larger atomic separations and feel a repulsive
force (when electron clouds overlap too much) at shorter separations. (At very large
separations there is no force felt).
The energy and the force (which is a gradient of the energy field) display functional
behaviour as below.
The plots of these
functions is shown
in the next slide
r
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

e
n
e
r
g
y

(
U
)

F
o
r
c
e

(
F
)

Attractive
Repulsive
r
Attractive
Repulsive
r
0
r
0

r
0 Equilibrium separation
m n
r
B
r
A
U + =
q p
r
B
r
A
F
' '
+ =
r
F
o
r
c
e

r
0

For displacements around r
0
Force-displacement curve is approximately linear
THE LINEAR ELASTIC REGION
Near r
0
the red line (tangent to the F-r curve at r = r
0
)
coincides with the blue line (F-r) curve
Elastic modulus is the slope of the Force-interatomic spacing curve (F-r curve), at the
dr
dF
Y
2
2
dr
U d
dr
dF
Y =
Youngs modulus (Y / E)
**

Youngs modulus is :: to the ve slope of the
F-r curve at r = r
0

** Youngs modulus is not an elastic modulus but an elastic constant
S
t
r
e
s
s

strain
Compression
Tension
S
t
r
e
s
s

strain
Compression
Tension
Stress-strain curve for an elastomer
Due to efficient
filling of space
c
T
due to uncoiling
of polymer chains
c
C
c
T

c
C
c
T

>
Other elastic moduli
o = E.c E Youngs modulus
t = G. G Shear modulus
o
hydrodynami
= K.volumetric strain K Bulk modulus
l
t
c
c
v =
) 1 ( 2 v +
=
E
G
) 2 1 ( 3 v
=
E
K
Bonding and Elastic modulus
Materials with strong bonds have a deep potential energy well with a high
curvature high elastic modulus
Along the period of a periodic table the covalent character of the bond and
its strength increase systematic increase in elastic modulus
Down a period the covalent character of the bonding in Y
On heating the elastic modulus decrease: 0 K M.P, 10-20% in modulus
Along the period Li Be B C
diamond
C
graphite

Atomic number (Z) 3 4 5 6 6
Youngs Modulus (GN / m
2
) 11.5 289 440 1140 8
Down the row C
diamond
Si Ge Sn Pb
Atomic number (Z) 6 14 32 50 82
Youngs Modulus (GN / m
2
) 1140 103 99 52 16
Anisotropy in the Elastic modulus
In a crystal the interatomic distance varies with direction
elastic anisotropy
Elastic anisotropy is especially pronounced in materials with
two kinds of bonds
E.g. in graphite E [1010] = 950 GPa, E [0001] = 8 GPa
Two kinds of ordering along two directions
E.g. Decagonal QC E [100000] = E [000001]
Property
Material dependence
Geometry dependence
Elastic modulus
Stiffness of a material is its ability to resist elastic deformation of
deflection on loading depends on the geometry of the component.
High modulus in conjunction with good ductility should be chosen (good
ductility avoids catastrophic failure in case of accidental overloading)
Covalently bonded materials- e.g. diamond have high E (1140 GPa)
BUT brittle
Ionic solids are also very brittle
Elastic modulus in design
Ionic solids NaCl MgO Al
2
O
3
TiC Silica glass
Youngs Modulus (GN / m
2
) 37 310 402 308 70
METALS
First transition series good combination of ductility &
modulus (200 GPa)
Second & third transition series even higher modulus, but higher
density
POLYMERS
Polymers can have good plasticity but low modulus
dependent on
the nature of secondary bonds- Van der Walls / hydrogen
presence of bulky side groups
branching in the chains
Unbranched polyethylene E = 0.2 GPa,
Polystyrene with large phenyl side group E = 3 GPa,
3D network polymer phenol formaldehyde E = 3-5 GPa
cross-linking
Increasing the modulus of a material
METALS
By suitably alloying the Youngs modulus can be increased
But E is a structure (microstructure) insensitive property
the increase is o fraction added
TiB
2
(~ spherical, in equilibrium with matrix) added to Fe to increase E

COMPOSITES
A second phase (reinforcement) can be added to a low E material to E
(particles, fibres, laminates)
The second phase can be brittle and the ductility is provided by the
matrix if reinforcement fractures the crack is stopped by the
matrix
COMPOSITES
Laminate
composite
Aligned
fiber
composite
Particulate
composite
m m f f c
V E V E E + =
Modulus parallel to the direction of the fiberes
Volume fractions
Under iso-strain conditions
I.e. parallel configuration
m-matrix, f-fibre, c-composite
Composite modulus in isostress and isostrain conditions
m m f f c
V E V E E + =
Under iso-strain conditions [c
m
= c
f
= c
c
]
I.e. ~ resistances in series configuration
m
m
f
f
c
E
V
E
V
E
+ =
1
Under iso-stress conditions [o
m
= o
f
= o
c
]
I.e. ~ resistances in parallel configuration
Usually not found in practice
A B
Volume fraction
E
c

E
m
E
f
For a given fiber fraction f, the modulii of
various conceivable composites lie between an
upper bound given by isostrain condition
and a lower bound given by isostress condition
f
Voigt averaging
Reuss averaging