welding

Welding (fabrication method)

Welding is a materials joining process which produces coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable temperatures with or without the application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone, and with or without the use of filler material. Welding is used for making permanent joints. It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine frames, structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building.

Classification of welding process

1. Arc welding:
I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII.
I. II. III. IV.

gas metal arc welding Gas tungsten arc welding Plasma arc welding Shielded metal arc welding Submerged arc welding Carbon arc welding Flux cored arc welding
oxyacetylene welding Oxyhydrogen welding Pressure gas welding Air acetylene welding

2. Gas welding:

Conti.
3. Resistance welding:
I. II. III. IV. V. I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. Flash welding Upset welding Projection welding Resistance seam welding Resistance spot welding

4. Other welding processes:

Thermit welding Electroslag welding Electron beam welding Laser beam welding Forge welding Friction welding Diffusion welding Explosion welding Brazing Braze welding soldering

Welding terms (Terminology)

Backing: It is the material support provided at the root side of a weld to aid in the control of penetration. Base metal: The metal to be joined or cut is termed the base metal. Bead or weld bead: Bead is the metal added during a single pass of welding. The bead appears as a separate material from the base metal. Crater: In arc welding , a crater is the depression in the weld metal pool at the point where the arc strikes the base metal. Deposition rate: The rate at which the weld metal is deposited per unit time is the deposition rate is normally expressed as kg/h

Conti
Fillet weld: The metal fused into the corner of a joint made by two pieces placed at approximately 90 0 to each other is termed fillet weld. Penetration: It is the depth up to which the weld metal combines with the base metal as measured from the top surface of the joint. Puddle: The portion of the weld joint that is melted by the heat of welding. Root: It is the point at which the two pieces to be joined by welding. Tack weld: A small weld , generally used to temporarily hold the two pieces together during actual welding .

Conti
Toe of weld: It is the junction between the weld face & base metal. Weld face: It is the exposed surface of the weld. Weld metal: The metal that is solidified in the joint is called weld metal. It may be only a base metal or a mixture of base metal & filler metal. Weld pass: A single movement of the welding torch or electrode along the length of the joint which results in a bead is a weld pass.

Electric arc welding

Electric arc welding

Conti
Arc welding is a welding process, in which heat is generated by an electric arc struck between an electrode and the work piece Electric arc welding is one of the most widely used welding process, mainly because of the ease of use and high production rate that can be achieved economically. Uses an electric arc to join or coalesce metals.

Arc welding Equipments

Power supply (AC or Dc) Two cables- one for work and one for electrode Electrode holder Electrode Protective shield Gloves Wire brush Chipping hammer Goggles

Difference between AC & DC welding

AC welding:
I. More efficiency II. Power consumption less III. Cost of equipment is less IV. Higher voltage hence not safe V. Not suitable for welding non ferrous metals VI. Not preferred for welding thin sections VII.Any terminal can be connected to the work or electrode

Conti.
DC Welding:
I. Less efficiency II. Power consumption more III. Cost of equipment is more IV. Low voltage safer operation V. suitable for both ferrous non ferrous metals VI. preferred for welding thin sections VII.Positive terminal connected to the work VIII.Negative terminal connected to the electrode

Polarity

Weld Fluxes
Typical fluxes
SiO2, TiO2, FeO, MgO, Al2O3 Produces a gaseous shield to prevent contamination Act as scavengers to reduce oxides Add alloying elements to the weld Influence shape of weld bead during solidification

Advantages of arc welding

Most efficient way to join metals Lowest-cost joining method Affords lighter weight through better utilization materials Joins all commercial metals Provides design flexibility

of

Disadvantages of arc welding

Manually applied, therefore high labor cost. Need high energy causing danger Not convenient for disassembly. Defects are hard to detect at joints.

OTHER ARC-WELDING PROCESSES

RESISTANCE WELDING

Resistance welding

Conti
Resistance Welding is a welding process, in which work pieces are welded due to a combination of a pressure applied to them and a localized heat generated by a high electric current flowing through the contact area of the weld. Heat produced by the current is sufficient for local melting of the work piece at the contact point and formation of small weld pool (nugget). The molten metal is then solidifies under a pressure and joins the pieces. AC electric current (up to 100 000 A) is supplied through copper electrodes connected to the secondary coil of a welding transformer. The following metals may be welded by Resistance Welding: Low carbon steels - the widest application of Resistance Welding Aluminum alloys Medium carbon steels, high carbon steels and Alloy steels (may be welded, but the weld is brittle)

Advantages,disadvantages & applications

Advantages of Resistance Welding:
High welding rates; Low fumes; Cost effectiveness; Easy automation; No filler materials are required; Low distortions.

Disadvantages of Resistance Welding:

High equipment cost; Low strength of discontinuous welds; Thickness of welded sheets is limited - up to 1/4 (6 mm);

applications
Resistance Welding (RW) is used for joining vehicle body parts, fuel tanks, domestic radiators, pipes of gas oil and water pipelines, wire ends, turbine blades, railway tracks.

Resistance spot welding

Conti.
Spot Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process, in which two or more overlapped metal sheets are joined by spot welds. The method uses pointed copper electrodes providing passage of electric current. The electrodes also transmit pressure required for formation of strong weld. Diameter of the weld spot is in the range 1/8 - 1/2 (3 - 12 mm). Spot welding is widely used in automotive industry for joining vehicle body parts.

Advantages, disadvantages & applications

Projection welding

Conti

Advantages,disadvantages & applications

Advantages of Projection Welding: More than one spot weld can be made in a single operation. Welding current and pressure required is less. Suitable for automation. Filler metals are not used. Hence, clean weld joints are obtained. Disadvantages of Projection Welding: Projections cannot be made in thin work pieces. Thin work pieces cannot withstand the electrode pressure. Equipment is costlier. Applications of Projection Welding: A very common use of projection welding is the use of special nuts that have projections on the portion of the part to be welded to the assembly. Also, used for welding parts of refrigerator, condensers, refrigerator racks, grills etc

Upset welding
Upset welding is a form of resistance welding in which coalescence occurs simultaneously across the entirety of the abutting surface area, or progressively along a joint, using heat from the base metals resistance to the current passing through them. OR In upset welding(UW), the w/p to be joined are brought together to mate with each other in a butt joint compared to lap joint that has been used so far. The two w/p are held tightly together & current is applied, so that the heat is generated through the contact area betn the two plates. Because of the joint being under pressure, the ends of the two pieces get slightly upset & hence its name upset. This is useful for joining the two ends of rods or similar pieces.

Advantages,disadvantages &applications
Advantages: suitable for joining many alloys that are difficult to weld using fusion processes. Since no melting takes place, the weld metal retains many of the characteristics of the base metal. Resulting welds have a hot worked structure, and thereby have higher strength than fusion welds in the same mate. Since the material being joined is not melted, compositional gradients are not introduced, second phase materials are minimally disrupted. Disadvantages: Applications: upset welding has been adapted for fabrication of structures considered very large compared to typical resistance welding applications. The process has been used for closure of capsules, small vessels, and large containers.

Flash welding

Conti
Flash Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process, in which ends of rods (tubes, sheets) are heated and fused by an arc struck between them and then forged (brought into a contact under a pressure) producing a weld. The welded parts are held in electrode clamps, one of which is stationary and the second is movable. Flash Welding method permits fast (about 1 min.) joining of large and complex parts. Welded part are often annealed for improvement of toughness of the weld. Steels, Aluminum alloys, Copper alloys, Magnesium alloys, Copper alloys and Nickel alloys may be welded by Flash Welding.

Advantages,disadvantages &applications

Applications: Thick pipes, ends of band saws, frames, aircraft landing gears are produced by Flash Welding.

Resistance seam welding

Conti
Seam Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process of continuous joining of overlapping sheets by passing them between two rotating electrode wheels. Heat generated by the electric current flowing through the contact area and pressure provided by the wheels are sufficient to produce a leak-tight weld.

OTHER FABRICATION(WELDING) METHODS

Thermit welding

Conti..
1.Thermit Welding is a welding process utilizing heat generated by
exothermic chemical reaction between the components of the thermit (a mixture of a metal oxide and aluminum powder). The molten metal, produced by the reaction, acts as a filler material joining the work pieces after Solidification.

2.Thermit Welding is mainly used for joining steel parts, therefore common
thermit is composed from iron oxide (78%) and aluminum powder (22%). 3.The proportion 78-22 is determined by the chemical reaction of combustion of aluminum:
8Al+3Fe3O4=9Fe+4Al2O3+3.01MJ/Mol

4.The combustion reaction products (iron and aluminum oxide) heat up to

4500F (2500C). Liquid iron fills the sand (or ceramic) mold built around the welded parts, the slag (aluminum oxide), floating up, is then removed from the weld surface.

Advantages, disadvantages &applications

Advantages of Thermit Welding: No external power source is required (heat of chemical reaction is utilized); Very large heavy section parts may be joined. Making a fast weld Provides a reasonably strong weld Disadvantages of thermit Welding: Only ferrous (steel, chromium, nickel) parts may be welded; Slow welding rate; High temperature process may cause distortions and changes in Grain structure in the weld region. Weld may contain gas (Hydrogen) and slag contaminations. Applications: Thermit Welding is used for repair of steel casings and forgings, for joining railroad rails, steel wires and steel pipes, for joining large cast and forged parts

Electroslag welding

Conti.
Electroslag Welding is a welding process, in which the heat is generated by an electric current passing between the consumable electrode (filler metal) and the work piece through a molten slag covering the weld surface. ESW process is developed essentially to weld very large plates without any edge preparation. Prior to welding the gap between the two work pieces is filled with a welding flux. The slag reaches a temperature of about 3500F (1930C). This temperature is sufficient for melting the consumable electrode and work piece edges. Metal droplets fall to the weld pool and join the work pieces. Electroslag Welding is used mainly for steels.

Advantages, disadvantages & applications

Advantages of Electroslag Welding: High deposition rate - up to 45 lbs/h (20 kg/h); Low slag consumption (about 5% of the deposited metal weight); Low distortion; Unlimited thickness of work piece. Disadvantages of Electroslag welding: Coarse grain structure of the weld; Low toughness of the weld; Only vertical position is possible. Applications: Fabrication of high pressure vessels Frames of heavy mechanical & hydraulic presses Rolling mill frames Ship hulls & locomotive frames etc.

Brazing
Brazing is a method of joining two metal work pieces by means of a filler material at a temperature above its melting point but below the melting point of either of the materials being joined.

Flow of the molten filler material into the gap between the work pieces is driven by the capillary force. The filler material cools down and solidifies forming a strong metallurgical joint, which is usually stronger than the parent (work piece) materials. The parent materials are not fused in the process.

Advantages, disadvantages &applications

Advantages of Brazing : It's easy to learn. You can join virtually any dissimilar metals. The bond line can be very neat in appearance. Joint strength is strong enough for most non-heavy-duty use applications. Disadvantages of Brazing : A badly brazed joint looks similar to a good joint, and can have a VERY low strength. The metal used to bond the two parts may be different in color than the parts being bonded. This may or may not be a problem. Long-term effects of dissimilar metals in constant contact may need to be examined for special applications. Since the filler material (typically bronze) melts at a relatively low temperature, brazed parts may not be put in an environment which exceeds the melting point of the filler metal. Applications:

Braze welding
Braze welding is similar to brazing in that the joint is obtained by means of a filler metal, whose liquidus temperature is above 4500 C & below the solidus temperature of the base metal. But the difference is that in braze welding, the filler metal reaches the joint without the capillary action since the joint gap is bigger. Typical filler metals used in braze welding are brasses with zinc content up to 40%.

Advantages,disadvantages &applications
Advantages of braze welding:
This process requires less preheating, permits greater welding speed, demands a shorter cooling-off period, and is less likely to crack metals, such as cast iron, during the braze welding operation. There is no splash or weld spatter to worry about and low temperatures minimize distortion. The completed joint requires little or no finishing. Brazing technique does not require as much skill as the technique required for fusion welding. If the joint is to be exposed to corrosive media, the filler metal must have the required corrosion-resistant characteristics. All brazing alloys lose strength at elevated temperatures. If the joint is to be painted, all traces of the flux must be removed

Disadvantages of braze welding:

Soldering
Soldering is a method of joining two metal work pieces by means of a third metal (solder) at a relatively low temperature, which is above the melting point of the solder but below the melting point of either of the materials being joined. Flow of the molten solder into the gap between the work pieces is driven by the capillary force. The solder cools down and solidifies forming a joint. The parent materials are not fused in the process. Soldering is similar to Brazing. The difference is in the melting point of the filler alloy: solders melt at temperatures below 840F (450C); brazing filler materials melt at temperatures above this point. Soldering joints have relatively low tensile strength of about 10000 psi (70MPa).

Advantages, disadvantages &applications

Advantages of soldering: Low power is required; Low process temperature; No thermal distortions and residual stresses in the joint parts; Microstructure is not affected by heat; Easily automated process; Dissimilar materials may be joined; High variety of materials may be joined; Thin wall parts may be joined; Moderate skill of the operator is required.

Conti.
Disadvantages of soldering: Careful removal of the flux residuals is required in order to prevent corrosion; Large sections cannot be joined; Fluxes may contain toxic components; Soldering joints can not be used in high temperature applications; Low strength of joints.

Applications: Soldering is used in plumbing, in electronics and metalwork from flashing to jewelry. Electronic soldering connects electrical wiring and electronic components to printed circuit boards (PCBs).

Tungsten inert-gas welding (TIG)

Conti.
Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding) is a welding process, in which heat is generated by an electric arc struck between a tungsten non-consumable electrode and the work piece. The weld pool is shielded by an inert gas (Argon, helium, Nitrogen) protecting the molten metal from atmospheric contamination. The heat produced by the arc melts the work pieces edges and joins them. Filler rod may be used, if required. Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding produces a high quality weld of most of metals. Flux is not used in the process.

Advantages, disadvantages & applications

Advantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW): Weld composition is close to that of the parent metal; High quality weld structure Slag removal is not required (no slag); Thermal distortions of work pieces are minimal due to concentration of heat in small zone. Disadvantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW): Low welding rate; Relatively expensive; Requires high level of operators skill. Applications: auto mobile industries(bus, car, trucks etc ) aircrafts etc

Gas metal-arc welding

(GMAW) or (MIG)

Conti..
Metal Inert Gas Welding (Gas Metal Arc Welding) is a arc Welding process, in which the weld is shielded by an external gas (Argon, helium, CO2, argon + Oxygen or other gas mixtures). Consumable electrode wire, having chemical composition similar to that of the parent material, is continuously fed from a spool to the arc zone. The arc heats and melts both the work pieces edges and the electrode wire. The fused electrode material is supplied to the surfaces of the work pieces, fills the weld pool and forms joint. Due to automatic feeding of the filling wire (electrode) the process is referred to as a semi-automatic. The operator controls only the torch positioning and speed.

Advantages,disadvantages
Advantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW): Continuous weld may be produced (no interruptions); High level of operators skill is not required; Slag removal is not required (no slag); Disadvantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW): Expensive and non-portable equipment is required; Outdoor application are limited because of effect of wind, dispersing the shielding gas.