Leadership is the behaviour of an individual when he is directing the activities of a group toward a shared goal.

(Hemphill & Coons, 1957: 7) Leadership is interpersonal influence, exercised in a situation, and directed, through the communication process, toward the attainment of a specified goal or goals. (Tannenbaum, Weschler & Massarik, 1961: 24) Leadership is the behaviour of an individual when he is directing the activities of a group toward a shared goal. (Hemphill & Coons, 1957: 7) Leadership is that process in which one person sets the purpose or direction for one or more other persons and gets them to move along together with him or her and with each other in that direction with competence and full commitment. (Jaques & Clement, 1994: 4)

 Leadership is both a process and property". The process of leadership is the use of non-coercive influence to direct and coordinate the activities of the members of an organized group towards the accomplishment of group objectives. As a property, leadership is a set of qualities and characteristics attributed to those who are perceived to successfully employ such influence.

Nature of Leadership
Leadership refers to the ability of an individual to influence others. The influence is exercised to change the behavior of others. Behavior is changed through non-coercive means. Change of behavior is caused with an objective of achieving a shared goal. The person influencing others possess a set of qualities or characteristics which he uses to influence others. Leadership is a group phenomenon. it involves interaction between two or more people.

IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP
Leadership is an important function of management which helps to maximize efficiency and to achieve organizational goals. The following points justify the importance of leadership in a concern. Initiates action- Leader is a person who starts the work by communicating the policies and plans to the subordinates from where the work actually starts. Motivation- A leader proves to be playing an incentive role in the concerns working. He motivates the employees with economic and non-economic rewards and thereby gets the work from the subordinates.

Providing guidance- A leader has to not only supervise but also play a guiding role for the subordinates. Guidance here means instructing the subordinates the way they have to perform their work effectively and efficiently. Creating confidence- Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved through expressing the work efforts to the subordinates, explaining them clearly their role and giving them guidelines to achieve the goals effectively. It is also important to hear the employees with regards to their complaints and problems. Building morale- Morale denotes willing co-operation of the employees towards their work and getting them into confidence and winning their trust. A leader can be a morale booster by achieving full co-operation so that they perform with best of their abilities as they work to achieve goals. Builds work environment- Management is getting things done from people. An efficient work environment helps in sound and stable growth. Therefore, human relations should be kept into mind by a leader. He should have personal contacts with employees and should listen to their problems and solve them. He should treat employees on humanitarian terms. Co-ordination- Co-ordination can be achieved through reconciling personal interests with organizational goals. This synchronization can be achieved through proper and effective co-ordination which should be primary motive of a leader.

Leadership styles

Based on authority retained

Based on task versus people emphasis

Based on assumptions about people

Based on authority retained

Authoritarian

Participative Style

Free-rein (Laissez faire)

Consultative

Consensual

Democratic

Leadership styles
1. AUTHORITARIAN STYLE/AUTOCRATIC STYLE Retention of full authority by the leader Decisions are taken by leader only and they are passed onto the followers, and instructions are given to the followers regarding the implementation of the decisions. Strict, close control over followers by keeping close regulation of rules given to followers. Leader engages primarily in one-way and downward communication. Controls discussion with followers. Examples of authoritarian communicative behavior: a police officer directing traffic, a teacher ordering a student to do his or her assignment, and a supervisor instructing a subordinate to clean a workstation

Advantage Timely and efficient completion of tasks by the followers. Disadvantage Low employee morale Workers following leader directions lose initiative and avoid responsibility for any errors.

Participative or democratic style

The democratic leadership style favours decision-making by the group . They can win the cooperation of their group and can motivate them effectively and positively. The decisions of the democratic leader are not unilateral as with the autocrat because they arise from consultation with the group members and participation by them.

Consultative: These leaders take opinions from group

before decisions are taken, but they do not necessarily accept the groups thinking, these leaders make it clear that they alone have final authority to make final decisions.

 Consensual: These leaders undergo group discussion on an issue and then make a decision. These leaders delegate more authority to the followers as compared to consultative leaders.This style leads to considerable delay in decision making because every member has to give his/her consent. Democratic: These leaders function as a collector of opinions and take a vote before making a decision. Democratic leaders delegate full authority to subordinates. Advantages Useful when the followers are competent and self-motivated. Satisfies employees needs such as esteem and selfactualisation. Improved quality of decisions made. Less resistance to change on the part of employees.

Laissez Faire or free rein style

A free rein leader does not lead, but leaves the group entirely to itself such a leader allows maximum freedom to subordinates, i.e. they are given a free hand in deciding their own policies and methods.

1. Can be very useful in businesses where creative ideas are important 2. Can be highly motivational, as people have control over their working life 3. Can make coordination and decision making timeconsuming and lacking in overall direction 4. Relies on good team work. 5. Relies on good interpersonal relations.

Based on task versus people Emphasis

People Emphasis

High relationship and lowtask [ supporting style ]

High task and high relationship

[ participative style]

High

Low-task and low relationship High task and low relationship [ free rein style ]
Low

[ autocratic style ]

Low

High

Task Emphasis

Based on assumptions about people

Mc Gregors theory
Theory Y

Theory X

They distrust people and believe in close supervision and tight control over the subordinates.

They are participative ,trust subordinates and allow them to participate in decisionmaking

Thories of leadership
Trait Theory
Leader Behaviour Theories

Contingency Theories

Trait theory
Focuses on individual characteristics of successful leaders. Leaders possess a set of traits which make them distinct from followers. Ralph stogdill
A strong desire for accomplishment. Creativity and intelligence. Initiative. High tolerence. Ability to influence others.

LIMITATIONS: No universal traits found that predict leadership in all situations. How much of which trait a successful leader must have is not clear. Moreover, there are certain traits which cannot be quantified. This theory assumes that a leader is born and not trained. The leadership effectiveness alone does not depend upon the personality of the leader but also on various other factors such as situation, the task, organization and characteristics of the followers etc. Subjective assessment of traits of successful leaders. Some people who have failed as leaders also possess some of the same traits as that of successful leaders.

Behavioural Theories
Main focus is on behaviour of actual leaders. Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders. Dtermines how various kinds of specific leaders behaviour affect the performance and satisfaction of followers.
Trait theory: Leaders are born, not made.
Behavioral theory: Leadership traits can be taught.

Ohio State Studies

Initiating Structure The Leader behaviour that defines and organises the group tasks,assigns the tasks to employees, and supervises their activities. Consideration The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinates ideas, and regard for their feelings.

Consideration & Initiating Structure

Consideration Is friendly, approachable Do little things to make it fun to be a member of group Give advance notice of changes Willing to make changes Treats group members as equals Initiating Structure Tries out ideas in the group Let group members know what is expected Assigns workers to tasks Schedules work to be done Maintains standards of performance

University of Michigan Studies

Employee-Oriented Leader Emphasizing interpersonal relations; taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among members. Production-Oriented Leader One who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the job.

Managerial grid
Blake and Moton A graphical representation of a 2 dimensional view of leadership style. Based on :1. concern for people 2. concern for production Grid identifies 5 basic styles of leadership.

The Managerial Grid

(Blake and Mouton)

 The managerial grid identified five basic styles of leadership. The 9,1(Task Management style) here a leader is mainly concerned with production and has little concern for people. The 1,9( Country club management) here leader is primarily concerned with people. The 5,5(Middle of the road management) here leader represents a moderate concern for both. The 9,9(Team Management) here a leader shows high concern for both and is the ideal approach to leadership. The 1,1(impoverished management) here the leader has minimum concern for both people and production.

Contingency theory
Behaviour of leader depends upon characteristic of situation leader is in. Implies under what conditions will employee oriented leadership will be effective and under what type of conditions production oriented leadership be more effective. Most popular theories 1. Fiedlers contingency model. 2. The path-goal theory. 3. Situational leadership theory.

Contingency Theories of Leadership

Contingency Models
What makes a manager an effective leader in one situation is not necessarily what that manager needs to be equally effective in another situation. Whether or not a manager is an effective leader is the result of the interplay between what the manager is like, what he does, and the situation in which leadership takes place

14-27

Fiedlers theory
Effectiveness of leadership depends upon1. His motivational style/His Leadership style 2. The favourableness of situation.

Contingency Models of Leadership

Fiedlers Model
Relationship-oriented style: leaders concerned with developing good relations with their subordinates and to be liked by them. Task-oriented style: leaders whose primary concern is to ensure that subordinates perform at a high level so the job gets done.

14-29

Fiedlers Model: Defining the Situation

Leader-Member Relations The degree of confidence, trust, and respect subordinates have in their leader.

Task Structure
The degree to which the job assignments are procedurized/systematic. Position Power Influence derived from ones formal structural position in the organization; includes power to hire, fire, discipline, promote, and give salary increases.

Fiedlers Contingency Theory of Leadership

Figure 14.2

14-31

Rorbert Houses Path-Goal Theory

The theory says that it is the leaders job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide them the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization. The leaders help group members in attaining rewards by clarifying the paths to goals and removing obstacles to performance. They do so by providing the information, support, and other resources which are required by employees to complete the task. Houses theory advocates servant leadership. As per servant leadership theory, leadership is not viewed as a position of power. Rather, leaders act as coaches and facilitators to their subordinates. According to Houses path-goal theory, a leaders effectiveness depends on several employee and environmental contingent factors and certain leadership styles.
14-32

The Path-Goal Theory

Leadership Styles The four leadership styles are: Directive: Here the leader provides guidelines, lets subordinates know what is expected of them, sets performance standards for them, and controls behavior when performance standards are not met. He makes judicious use of rewards and disciplinary action. The style is the same as task-oriented one. Supportive: The leader is friendly towards subordinates and displays personal concern for their needs, welfare, and well-being. This style is the same as people-oriented leadership. Participative: The leader believes in group decision-making and shares information with subordinates. He consults his subordinates on important decisions related to work, task goals, and paths to resolve goals. Achievement-oriented: The leader sets challenging goals and encourages employees to reach their peak performance. The leader believes that employees are responsible enough to accomplish challenging goals. This is the same as goal-setting theory.

Contingencies The theory states that each of these styles will be effective in some situations but not in others. It further states that the relationship between a leaders style and effectiveness is dependent on the following variables: Employee characteristics: These include factors such as employees needs, locus of control, experience, perceived ability. For example, if followers are high inability, a directive style of leadership may be unnecessary; instead a supportive approach may be preferable. Characteristics of work environment: These include factors such as task structure and team dynamics that are outside the control of the employee. For example, for employees performing simple and routine tasks, a supportive style is much effective than a directive one. Similarly, the participative style works much better for nonroutine tasks than routine ones. When team cohesiveness is low, a supportive leadership style must be used whereas in a situation where performance-oriented team norms exist, a directive style or possibly an achievement-oriented style works better.

Situational leadership theory

Paul hershey and Kenneth blanchard : Maturity of followers as a contingency variable. Situational leadership requires leaders emphasis on task behaviours and relationship behaviour according to maturity of followers in performing their tasks. Maturity of the followers has nothing to do with age or emotional stability but it deals with desire for achievement,willingness to accept responsibility,task related ability and experience.

 In the Situational Leadership model, the leadership style has been divided into 4 types: S1: Telling - Telling style is associated with leaders who minutely supervise their followers, constantly instructing them about why, how and when of the tasks that need to be performed. S2: Selling - Selling style is when a leader provide controlled direction and is a little more open and allows two way communication between him/herself and the followers thus ensuring that the followers buy in the process and work towards the desired goals. S3: Participating - This style is characterized when the leaders seeks opinion and participation of the followers to establish how a task should be performed. The leader in this case tries creating relationship with the followers S4: Delegating - In this case, the leader plays a role in decisions that are taken but passes on or delegates the responsibilities of carrying out tasks to his followers. The leader however monitors and reviews the process.

The developmental level of follower is an important indication for a leader to decide the most appropriate leadership style for them: D4 - High Competence, High Commitment - The followers who are identified in this category are the ones who have high competence and high commitment towards tasks to be performed. It might happen so that they turn out better than their leaders in performing these tasks. (For e.g. cricketing legend Sachin Tendulkar playing in the Indian cricket team under the captainship of Mahendra Singh Dhoni) D3 - High Competence, Variable Commitment - This category consists of followers who have the competence to do the job but their commitment level is inconsistent. They also tend to lack the confidence to go out and perform task alone.

 D2 - Some Competence, Low Commitment - In this case, the followers have a certain level of competence which might be sufficient to do the job but they are low on commitment towards the tasks. Despite of having relevant skills to perform the task they seek external help when faced with new situation. D1 - Low Competence, High Commitment - This category of followers may not have the specific skill required but they display a high level of commitment towards the task they have to perform, with confidence and motivation, they figure out ways to complete the tasks.

The Vertical-Dyad Linkage theory of Leadership

This theory assumes that leaders have different relationships with different subordinates. According to this theory, each superior-subordinate pair is considered to be a vertical dyad. According to this theory, leaders establish special relationships with a few trusted subordinates that are called the in-group. The in-group is the leader's inner circle. Its members are entrusted with higher levels of responsibility and a greater degree of influence over the leader's decision making. The ingroup also has better access to resources. The out-group consists of those who have failed to curry the leader's favor. They have less influence on the leader's decisions, less responsibility and less access to resources.

 Since the benefits that in-group members enjoy, it leads to greater job satisfaction and lower attrition rates, and in-group members tend to work harder and more loyally to retain their favoured status. The disadvantage of this theory is that an inner-circle member who gets plum assignments and input on decision making has more opportunity for advancement than does an outer-circle member who has few opportunities and is largely ignored by the leader -- regardless of how the out-group member's capabilities may have developed over time.

Mc. Gregors Theory X and Theory Y

In 1960, Douglas McGregor formulated Theory X and Theory Y suggesting two aspects of human behaviour at work, or in other words, two different views of individuals (employees): one of which is negative, called as Theory X and the other is positive, so called as Theory Y. According to McGregor, the perception of managers on the nature of individuals is based on various assumptions.

 Assumptions of Theory X An average employee intrinsically does not like work and tries to escape it whenever possible. Since the employee does not want to work, he must be persuaded, compelled, or warned with punishment so as to achieve organizational goals. A close supervision is required on part of managers. The managers adopt a more dictatorial style. Many employees rank job security on top, and they have little or no aspiration/ ambition. Employees generally dislike responsibilities. Employees resist change. An average employee needs formal direction.

 Assumptions of Theory Y Employees can perceive their job as relaxing and normal. They exercise their physical and mental efforts in an inherent manner in their jobs. Employees may not require only threat, external control and coercion to work, but they can use self-direction and self-control if they are dedicated and sincere to achieve the organizational objectives. If the job is rewarding and satisfying, then it will result in employees loyalty and commitment to organization. An average employee can learn to admit and recognize the responsibility. In fact, he can even learn to obtain responsibility. The employees have skills and capabilities. Their logical capabilities should be fully utilized. In other words, the creativity, resourcefulness and innovative potentiality of the employees can be utilized to solve organizational problems.

 Thus, we can say that Theory X presents a pessimistic view of employees nature and behaviour at work, while Theory Y presents an optimistic view of the employees nature and behaviour at work. If correlate it with Maslows theory, we can say that Theory X is based on the assumption that the employees emphasize on the physiological needs and the safety needs; while Theory X is based on the assumption that the social needs, esteem needs and the self-actualization needs dominate the employees.

MOTIVATION
Stephen P Robbins defined Motivation as the willingness to exercise high levels of effort towards organizational goals, conditional by the effort ability to satisfy some individual needs. Motivation is a Latin word, which means to move. It is the willingness of an individual to respond to organisational requirements. Koontz ODonnell defines it as a general term applying to the entire class of drives, desires, needs, wishes & similar forces that induce an individual or a group of people at work.

Motivation Process
An unsatisfied need creates tension, which stimulates drives within the individual. These drives generate a search for particular goals that, if attained, will satisfy the need and lead to the reduction of tension. Motivated employees are in a state of tension.
To relieve this tension, they engage in activity. The greater the tension, the more activity will be needed to bring about relief.

Motive and Its Types

A motive is an inner state that energizes, activates, or moves & directs, channels behaviour towards goals. Primary motives: Also called physiological/biological/unlearned motives. 2 criteria for the motive to be primary are that they should be unlearned & physiological. Eg. hunger, thirst, sleep, avoidance of pain. Primary motives tend to reduce the tension.

Secondary motives: These are the most important w.r.t. the study of O.B. A motive must be learned in order to be a secondary one. These drives are closely tied to the learning concepts, such as motives for power, achievement, affiliation referred to as n Pow, n Ach, n Aff. Security & status are also secondary motives. Examples of key secondary needs: Need for Achievement: Doing better than competitors Attaining a difficult goal Solving a complex problem

Need for power:

Controlling people & activities Being in a position of authority over others Defeating an opponent

Need for status:

Working for the right company in the right job Having a degree from the right university Having the right privileges

Early Theories of Work Motivation

Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory SelfActualization Esteem Social

Safety
Physiological

Theories of Work Motivation

Maslow explained each level of hierarchy as follows:
1. Physiological needs: These are necessary to sustain life. They include food, water, clothing, shelter. These needs have the highest potency for motivation. A person who lacks these will be motivated by these.

Theories of Work Motivation

2. Safety needs: When physiological needs are reasonably satisfied, safety needs begin to manifest themselves. These needs include protection from physical dangers, such as fire or accident. Economic security, security of income against contingencies such as sickness, injury, non-hostile working atmosphere are also safety needs.

Theories of Work Motivation

3. Social needs: When physiological & safety needs are reasonably satisfied, social needs become important motivators. Man is a social being & wants to receive & give acceptance, friendship & affection. He feels the need for belonging, for being an accepted member of a formal or an informal group.

Theories of Work Motivation

4. Esteem needs: When the first three needs are essentially satisfied, esteem needs become dominant. The person must feel important & must also receive recognition from others, as that recognition supports the feelings of personal worth. Internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement and external factors such as status, recognition, and attention.

Theories of Work Motivation

5. Self actualization needs: At the summit of the hierarchy is the need to realize ones potentialities so as to satisfy what Maslow referred to as the desire to become everything that one is capable of becoming. Thus the person becomes interested in self-fulfillment, self-development, & creativity in the broadest sense of the term.

Theories of Work Motivation

Criticisms of Maslows theory: 1. Some individuals may lack ambition & may remain at the primary levels of the hierarchy concerned only with physiological & safety needs. 2. A single need cannot motivate an individual. There may be several & that too in combinations, existing.
3. The hierarchy of needs simply does not exist. At all Levels needs are present at given time. An individual motivated by self-actualisation cannot afford to forget his food.

Theories of Work Motivation

Herzberg's two-factor theory: Frederick Herzberg, in the late 1950s conducted a study on motivation. He and his associates used semi-structured interviews to elicit from 200 engineers & accountants in Pittsburgh area, the factors which satisfy or dissatisfy the workers. His study revealed that factors responsible for job satisfaction are quite different from those responsible for job dissatisfaction.

Certain factors give job satisfaction, but absence of these does not mean job dissatisfaction. It only means no job satisfaction. Similarly, certain factors cause job dissatisfaction, but absence of these does not mean job satisfaction. It only means no job dissatisfaction. Motivational factors or Satisfiers The presence of these factors motivates workers & at the same time, absence of these does not cause dissatisfaction. Factors are related to the content of the job and advancement and the work itself. Hygiene or Maintenance factors or Disatisfiers The presence of these factors does not motivate workers, but absence of these factors causes serious dissatisfaction. These factors are related to the job conditions and may be considered support factors.

Theories of Work Motivation

Motivators
Achievement Work itself Recognition Responsibility Advancement Possibility of growth

Hygiene factors
Co. policy Interpersonal relations Supervision Money Job security Status Working conditions

Difference between Maslows and Hertzberg motivation theory

Similarities: (a) The basic similarity between the two theories is that they both assume that specific needs affect behaviour. (b) Maslows physiological and safety needs is equal to Herzbergs hygiene factor whereas Maslows esteem, social and self actualization needs are equal to Herzbergs Motivational factors.

Mc. Gregors Theory X and Theory Y

In 1960, Douglas McGregor formulated Theory X and Theory Y suggesting two aspects of human behaviour at work, or in other words, two different views of individuals (employees): one of which is negative, called as Theory X and the other is positive, so called as Theory Y. According to McGregor, the perception of managers on the nature of individuals is based on various assumptions.

Theories of Work Motivation

Theory X
1. Workers dislike to work by themselves. 2. Workers are not ready to accept responsibility.

Theory Y

1. Workers feel that work is as natural as play. 2. Workers are ready to accept responsibility if proper motivation is available to them. 3. Workers prefer to be 3. Workers are directed by directed by others. themselves.

Theories of Work Motivation

Theory X
4. Workers are unambitious. 5. Workers by nature resist change & want security. 6. Workers lack creativity & fail to solve organisational problems.

Theory Y
4. Workers are ambitious. 5. Workers are ready to cope up with changes.

6. Workers have a high degree of creativity & succeed in solving organisational problems.

Theories of Work Motivation

Theory X Theory Y
7. Focus is on the lower 7. Focus is on both the level needs of workers i.e. lower level needs & higher physiological & safety level needs of workers i.e. social, esteem & selfactualisation. 8. Strict control is 8. Workers exercise selfnecessary to achieve control & self-direction to organisational objectives. achieve organisational objectives.

Theories of Work Motivation

Theory X Theory Y
9. Authority is not 9. Authority is delegated. delegated. 10. Autocratic leadership 10. Democratic leadership is followed. is followed.

Contemporary Theories of Motivation

McClelland Achievement Motivation Theory

It is also known as Three Needs Theory, Acquired Needs Theory, Motivational Needs Theory, and Learned Needs Theory. David McClelland identified three motivators that we all have. According to McClelland, these motivators are learned (which is why this theory is sometimes called the Learned Needs Theory). McClelland says that, regardless of our gender, culture, or age, we all have three motivating drivers, and one of these will be our dominant motivating driver. The three motivators are achievement, affiliation, and power.

 People with a strong need for achievement have the following characteristics: a)Has a strong need to set and accomplish challenging goals. b) Takes calculated risks to accomplish their goals. c) Likes to receive regular feedback on their progress and achievements. d) Often likes to work alone. Need for Affiliation: a) Wants to belong to the group. b) Wants to be liked, and will often go along with whatever the rest of the group wants to do. c) Favours collaboration over competition. Doesn't like high risk or uncertainty.

 Need for Power : a) Wants to control and influence others. b) Likes to win arguments. c) Enjoys competition and winning. d) Enjoys status and recognition. Those with a strong power motivator are often divided into two groups: personal and institutional. People with a personal power drive want to control others, while people with an institutional power drive like to organize the efforts of a team to achieve the company's goals

Individual needs

Work preferences

examples

High Need for Achievement

Individual Responsibility Challenging but achievable goals Feedback for performance

Field sales persons Challenging jobs where there is an opportunity to earn individual bonus.

High Need for Affiliation

Interpersonal relationships Opportunities to communicate Control over other persons Attention recognition

Customer service representatives

High need for power

Formal positions of supervisory responsibilities Appointment as head of special task force.

EQUITY THEORY
It is also known as social comparison theory, inequity theory. According to this theory an individual compares the ratio of his inputs/outcomes with the identical ratio of other employees. On comparing the employee either feels that he is overpaid or underpaid. This can be illustrated by the following equation: Individual Rewards Compared Others Rewards Individual Inputs with Others Inputs If the employee perceives that he is underpaid as compared to other employees. This is known as inequity. According to equity theory, both the person who gets too much and the person who gets too little feel distressed. The person who gets too much may feel guilt or shame. The person who gets too little may feel angry or humiliated.

 Upon feeling the inequity ,the employee or the person gets motivated to reduce it.
Important words of this theory are: Person: The individual for whom equity or inequity exists. Comparison other: Any group or individual used by a person as a referent regarding inputs and outcomes. The Key Factors in Equity Assessment Ones Input OnesOutput Job effort Actual pay Education Social Rewards Performance Promotion Skills Fringe Benefits Experience

The employees who perceive inequity and are under negative tension can make the following choices: Change in input (e.g. Dont overexert) Change their outcome (Produce quantity output and increasing earning by sacrificing quality when piece rate incentive system exist) Choose a different referent Quit the job. Change self perception (For instance - I know that Ive performed better and harder than everyone else.)Change perception of others (For instance - Jacks job is not as desirable as I earlier thought it was.)

Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement Theory behavior is solely a function of its consequences behavior is externally caused reinforcers - consequences that, when given immediately following a behavior, affect the probability that the behavior will be repeated managers can influence employees behavior by reinforcing actions deemed desirable emphasis is on positive reinforcement, not punishment.

Vrooms expectancy Theory

Vroom stresses and focuses on outcomes, and not on needs unlike Maslow and Herzberg. The theory states that the intensity of a tendency to perform in a particular manner is dependent on the intensity of an expectation that the performance will be followed by a definite outcome and on the appeal of the outcome to the individual. The Expectancy theory states that employees motivation is an outcome of three factors: a) Valence is the significance associated by an individual about the expected outcome. b) Expectancy is the faith that better efforts will result in better performance. Expectancy is influenced by factors such as possession of appropriate skills for performing the job, availability of right resources, availability of crucial information and getting the required support for completing the job.

 Instrumentality is the faith that if you perform well, then a valid outcome will be there. Instrumentality is affected by factors such as believe in the people who decide who receives what outcome, the simplicity of the process deciding who gets what outcome, and clarity of relationship between performance and outcomes. Motivation = Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality Thus, the expectancy theory concentrates on the following three relationships: Effort-performance relationship: What is the likelihood that the individuals effort be recognized in his performance appraisal? Performance-reward relationship: It talks about the extent to which the employee believes that getting a good performance appraisal leads to organizational rewards.

 Rewards-personal goals relationship: It is all about the attractiveness or appeal of the potential reward to the individual. Vroom was of view that employees consciously decide whether to perform or not at the job. This decision solely depended on the employees motivation level which in turn depends on three factors of expectancy, valence and instrumentality.