Meteorology for

Airborne Scientists
Henry Fuelberg
Department of Meteorology
Florida State University
Atmospheric Structure
and Thermodynamics

Some Basics
Basic Atmospheric Variables
• Pressure (p)
• Temperature (T in oC or K)
• Density (ρ) ( or specific volume (α =
1/density))
(kg m-3)
• Water vapor content
• Three dimensional wind
Atmospheric
Pressure
Changes with Altitude
Pressure = Force/Area
1 Pascal = 1 Newton m-
2

1 millibar (mb) =
1 hectoPascal
(hPa)
Mean sea level
pressure =
1013.25 mb
Thermal Structure
of the Atmosphere

Lapse rate = -
∂T/∂z

Troposphere has +
lapse

Stratosphere first
isothermal, then –
lapse

Troposphere has
Height of the
Tropopause
Varies with
Latitude
 Thermodynamics
Parcel = imaginary volume of air to
study, like a balloon, separate from
environment
Atmosphere acts as an ideal gas—a
mixture
Equation of state (ideal gas law)

Press = density x gas constant x temp

 First Law of
Thermodynamics
• dq = cv dT + pdα
heat change = internal energy
change +
work done to expand or
contract vol.

• dq= cp dT – α dp
heat change = enthalpy change + …
 Dry Adiabatic Process
• Consider an unsaturated parcel
• dq = 0
• 0 = cp dT – α dp
• Parcels still can change temperature due to
expansion and contraction
• Example—parcel expands, expends energy, T
becomes cooler
• Make substitutions and solve for dT/dz
• dT/dz = -g/cp = 9.8 oC/km = Γd (dry
adiabatic lapse rate)
• Unsat. parcels always follow Γd
• Away from clouds and radiative processes,
parcels ~ adiabatic for several days
Rising air
 Potential Temperature (θ)
Parcel at T and p
Θis temp. parcel would have if taken
dry adiabatically to p = 1000 mb
If p = 1000 mb, Θ=T
Θ = T (1000 mb/ p) R/cp R/cp =
0.286
Parcels conserve Θduring ascent,
descent, etc. as long as conditions are
adiabatic
T is not conserved, it changes at Γd
 Water Vapor
• Vapor pressure = partial pressure of
vapor (mb)
• Mixing ratio = mass vapor/mass dry air
(g/kg)
• Concept of saturation
• Dew point temperature = temp to which
air must be cooled to become saturated
(oC)
• Relative humidity = mixing ratio / sat.
Saturated Adiabatic Process
• Parcel is saturated
• Lift parcel, condensation occurs, latent
heat released, dq ≠ 0
• dq= cp dT – α dp
• Let dq = latent heat release
• Perform some magic
• Γs = Γd [ ≤ 1]
• Therefore……….. Γs ≤ Γd not a
constant
• Γs ≈ 5-6 oC/km
Radiosondes
 Hydrostatic Stability
Displace parcel upward (could go
downward)
Will displacement be
Suppressed = Stable
Layered clouds, steady
precipitation
Enhanced = Unstable
Towering clouds, showers or
 Absolute Stability
Environmental Lapse Rate less than Wet Adiabatic
Rate
 Absolute Instability
Environmental Lapse Rate greater than Dry
Adiabatic Rate
 Conditional Instability
Environmental Lapse Rate between the Dry
and Wet Adiabatic Rates
What Causes Wind to Blow
??

It is acted on by forces
—most of which we
can’t see
 Surface Map
Isobars = Lines of constant
pressure
Straight Isobars
Flow Around Circular Low
Flow Around Circular High
 Upper Level Charts
Pressure is Vertical Coordinate
500 mb Chart
 Planetary Boundary Layer
• (PBL)
Lowest layer of atmos—directly influenced
by the surface
• PBL vs. Free Atmosphere
• What happens in PBL?
• Air is heated/cooled from below—radiation
• Inversions (stable) at night—suppress
mixing
• Big lapse rate during day—less stable-lots
of mixing
• Mechanical Turbulence—roughness (day or
night)
• Wind Speed goes to zero at surface (no
slip)
• Speed increases with height according
to Ekman Theory—direction also
changes
• The more mixing
• the more θ is constant with
height
• the more mixing ratio constant
with height
• Height of PBL deep during day, shallow
at night
• Depth determined by
Transporting Air From
Surface to Higher
Levels

Winds are stronger there

Wind direction often changes
with height
Jet Streams
Middle Latitude Wave
Cyclones
Major Airstreams in Midlat
Cyclone
Smaller Scale Circulations
Also Provide Vertical
Transport
Sea/Land Breezes
Mountain/Valley Breezes
Santa Ana Winds & Fires
Wires Fanned by Santa Ana
Winds
Thunderstorms-Major Vertical
Transporters
Lightning Creates NOx
FOG
Radiation Fog
Advection Fog
Yesterday’s Fog (4:46 PM)
This morning
 Neat Picture
Contrails Cover 0.1% of Earth’s

Eastern
France
 Trajectories
Backward in time—where did air
come from? What path did it
take?
Forward in time—where is air going
to?
What path will it take?
Several possible procedures
Isobaric—air keeps same
pressure--
move parcel by horizontal winds
• Kinematic method—move
parcels by three-dimensional
winds—most popular today

Procedure for Forward

Trajectories
Start with 4-D grid of 3-D wind
components—hope data every
few hours
Move parcel one time step by
• Take winds at new location and
time and move parcel another
time step
• Repeat the process until you
reach the
ending time that you specify
• Limit is usually 5-10 days
• After that uncertainties are too
great
Examples from ARCTAS-2008
10 days back from selected
flight legs
Heading to N
CA
Heading to S
CA
 Particle Dispersion Models
•Establish locations of emissions and rates of
emission
•Release particles to simulate emission rate
•Particles have specified mass and are
released at specified rate
•Three-dimensional winds move the particles
•Can then watch the transport of the
WRF Nested Grid 45 km, 15 km, 5
km
Sprin
g

Summer
 Sources of Real Time
Information

Satellite, Radar, Surface

Analyses,
http://www.rap.ucar.edu/weat
her/
Surface Plot 7 PM
Edward AFB Radar 8 PM
Enhanced IR Image 8 PM
Surface Plot 11 AM
Visible Images 10
AM
Edwards AFB Monday 5 AM
500 mb Analysis 5 AM Monday
 Forecast Products

NOAA National Center for

Environmental Prediction

http://www.nco.ncep.noaa.gov

We look at 54 h progs valid

11 AM Wednesday
 SFC
Forecast
H
Clouds below 6000 ft
850 mb Forecast
700 mb Forecast
500 mb
Forecast 500
mb
Zoom to CA
Area
300 mb
Forecast
Your Local NWS Office

http://www.srh.noaa.gov
Other Interesting Sites
Storm Prediction Center
http://www.spc.noaa.gov

National Hurricane Center

http://www.nhc.noaa.gov