is a measure of average KINETIC ENERGY of the

particles that makes up a body. is the ability of one body to transfer thermal energy to another body. It is the Degree of HOTNESS of a body.

TEMPERATURE - Measurement Scales

Relative Scales
Fahrenheit

(F) Celsius (C)

Absolute Scales
Rankine

(R) Kelvin (K)

TEMPERATURE - Measurement Scales

212:F 672:R 373:K

100:C

Fahrenheit [F] = [C] 9/5 + 32 Celsius [C] = ([F] 32) x 5/9 Kelvin [K] = [C] + 273.15

32:F

492:R

0:C -18:C

273:K 255:K

0:F

460:R

-460:F

0:R

-273:C

0:K

Rankine [R] = [F] + 459.67

TEMPERATURE - Measurement Methods

Mechanical Methods
Filled in System thermometers Bimetallic Strips/ Expansion of materials Bulb & Capillary Sensor

Electrical Methods
RTD

Thermocouple
Thermistor Pyrometers etc.

Bimetallic Strip Thermometer

Two dissimilar metals are bonded together into what is called a bimetallic strip.
Suppose metal A has a smaller coefficient of thermal expansion than does metal B. As temperature increases, metal B expands more than does metal A, causing the bimetallic strip to curl upwards as sketched.

Bimetallic Thermometer (Expansion of solids)

Effect of unequal expansion of a bimetallic strip

Different metals have difference coefficient. Configured as spiral or helix for compactness Can be used with a pointer to make an inexpensive compact rugged thermometer.

Bimetallic Thermometer (Expansion of solids)

Effect of unequal expansion of a bimetallic strip

Bimetallic Thermometer (Expansion of solids)

Bimetallic Strip as Thermostat

One common application of bimetallic strips is in air-conditioning thermostats, where a bimetallic strip is used as the arm of a switch between electrical contacts. As the room temperature changes, the bimetallic strip bends as discussed above. When the bimetallic strip bends far enough, it makes contact with electrical leads which turn the heat or air conditioning on or off.

Mercury thermometers can range from -38F to 1110 F

Alcohol thermometers range from -328 F to 1110 F

Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer
The most common and well-known thermometer
is the liquid-in-glass thermometer.

As the temperature rises, the liquid expands, moving up the tube. The scale is calibrated to read temperature directly. Usually, mercury or some kind of alcohol is used for the liquid.
Other thermometer fill fluids include Benzene & ether

Filled-in-System Thermometers
Similar operation as the liquid in glass system. Filled system thermometers, also called pressure thermometers.

How it works?

Sensing element is a capillary tube filled with a liquid or gas which expands with an increase in temperature. This sensing element delivers a motion of physical change that is applied to the control element which either indicates, records, or by comparing the signal to a set point can be used to control the temperature of a process.

Elements
Bulb Capillary tube Pressure element Scale

Filled-in-System Thermometers - TYPES

Class I (A,B) Class II (A,B,C,D) Class III (A,B) Class IV Class V (A,B)

Liquid filled

(Excluding Mercury)

Vapour filled Gas filled Deleted Mercury Filled

Filled-in-System Thermometers - TYPES

Temperature Range
Class I: Class II: Class III: Class V: -125 F to + 600 F -40 to 32 or 32 to 600 F -450 F to +1400 -40 F to +1200 F

Response
Slowest Fastest Fast Fast

The big advantage of the filled system is that it places the sensor in one place and the signal processing equipment on another

Class I (Liquid Filled) Systems

Liquid Ethyl Alcohol Xylene Ether (Ethyl) Toulene

Range (0C) -45 to 150 -40 to 400 20 to 90 -80 to 250

Class II (Vapour Filled) Systems

Sensing bulb partially filled with volatile fluid. Common fluids include: methyl chloride, ether, butane, hexane, propane, toluene, sulfur dioxide, water etc. Based upon the principle that in a system containing only a liquid and its vapor, at a given temperature, a given pressure will exist in the system, regardless of system volume. Actual temperature measurement occurs at interface between liquid and vapor.

Class II (Vapour Filled) Systems

May exhibit erratic operation when temperature being measured swings above and below ambient temperature. Offers good reliability, inherently accurate, nonuniform scales (non-linear).

Class III (Gas Filled) Systems

Utilizes perfect gas law PV = nRT Constant volume thermometers. When temperature raised at constant volume pressure raises to operate Bourden gauge. Helium approximates perfect gas, but tends to leak and is not often used Nitrogen usually is used Compensation generally not necessary if a large bulb is used.

Filled-in-System Thermometers

ERRORS
1. Ambient Temperature Effect
2. Head or Elevation Effect 3. Barometric Effect 4. Immersion Effect

5. Radiation Effect

1. Ambient Temperature Effect

The change in ambient temperature causes volume

changes in the capillary and the pressure spring cases error in measurement.
Its value is given by tE

= (Vctc+Vptp)/Vb

where c = capillary; p = pressure spring; b = bulb;

E = error; t=change in temperature; V=Volume

2. Head/Elevation Error

If the thermometer bulb is placed at a different height with

respect to the pressure spring, elevation error arises.

For the bulb at higher position, pressure reading is also high. The error in % span,

% Es = 100h(kb+kf)Vb/ = 100h(kb+kf)/(R)
h = height difference; =fluid density Kb&kf = bulb & fluid stiffnesses

3. Barometric Effect
Due to atmospheric pressure changes, changes the

effective differential pressure at the pressure spring.

For a pressure change p in the system and a

barometric pressure change of pB, error in percentage of the span of ts,

tb= 100 pB ts/p

4. Immersion Effect
If the bulb is not properly or fully immersed in the

process and the head of the bulb is properly insulated, heat from the bulb is lost due to conduction through

the extension neck and thermal well causing error.

the error is roughly proportional to the unexposed area

of the bulb.

5. Radiation Error
Occurs due to the temperature difference between the

bulb and the other solid bodies around it.

COMPENSATION TECHNIQUES
CASE COMPENSATION FULL COMPENSATION
(CASE+CAPILLARY COMPENSATION)

CASE COMPENSATION

Inserting a bimetal strip between the free end of Bourden Gauge and the pointer. The deflection of the bimetal strip due to ambient temperature is in such a way that it compensates the deflection of the Bourden Gauge due to ambient temperature effect.

FULL COMPENSATION

FULL COMPENSATION
A dummy system excluding bulb is arranged by side. The dummy system provides a rotation exactly equal in magnitude but opposite in direction compared to the ambient temperature effect on the measurement system.

Filled-in-System Thermometers
Advantages
Self Contained. They do not require auxiliary power source. They are simple, rugged, lasting and have minimum possibility of being damaged during shipping and installation. Inexpensive due to simple design. Sensitivity and Speed of response fairly good.

They can be designed to deliver significant power to drive indicating or controlling mechanisms, including valves.
The capillary allows considerable separation between the point of measurement and the point of indication.

Filled-in-System Thermometers
Disadvantages
In the case of system failure entire units need to be replaced. Many applications may not allow large bulb volume within the measured medium. Performance characteristics vary for different liquids, so care should be taken for particular application. The maximum temperature is limited compared to electrical systems. The separation of the sensing and indicating elements is limited compared to electrical systems.

Electronic sensors are more preferred due to flexibility, distant measurement, cost etc.

Electrical Electrical Methods Temperature Transducers

 Thermistor, a word formed by combining thermal with resistor, is a temperature-sensitive resistor fabricated from semiconducting materials. The resistance of thermistors decreases proportionally with increases in temperature. The operating range can be -200C to + 1000C

 The thermistors can be in the shape of a rod, bead or disc.

Manufactured from oxides of nickel, manganese, iron, cobalt, magnesium, titanium and other metals.

 The word that best describes the thermistors is sensitive

Advantages: Small sizes and fast response Low cost Suitability for narrow spans Disadvantages: More susceptible to permanent decalibration at high temperatures. Use is limited to a few hundred degrees Celsius. Respond quickly to temperature changes, thus, especially susceptible to self-heating errors. Very fragile

RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) is a temperature sensitive resistor. It is a positive temperature coefficient device, which means that the resistance increases with temperature.

The resistive property of the metal is called its

resistivity.

The industry standard is the platinum wire RTD (Pt100) whose base resistance is exactly 100.00 ohms at 0.0 C.

 linear temperature sensors. Resistance Vs temperature characteristics are stable and reproducible. linear positive temperature coefficient (-200 to 800C). very accurate and suitable for use as a secondary standard.