Over voltages

The insulation strength and characteristics of various components of a system (including those of voltage limiting devices) must be selected relating to those stresses.
i. To reduce frequency of supply interruptions ii. To reduce component failures

The selected level of voltage shall be low enough to be operationally and economically acceptable

Causes of over voltage:

Phase to earth faults ( it is assumed that resulting temporary voltages will not exceed
1.4 Pu for solidly earthed networks 1.7 Pu for resistance earthed networks 2.0 Pu for reactance earthed networks

Load rejection (supplying capacitive current through a large inductive reactance ex. A smaller generator connected to a long cable or over head line) Ferro resonance ( inter change of stored energy for series or parallel combination of inductive and capacitive reactance)

Causes of over voltage: contd.

Ferranti effect: (receiving end voltage greater than sending end voltage under no load or light load conditions) By care full design and natural earthing sustained over voltages involving resonance and arcing ground faults are eliminated Below 145 kV method of earthing will normally determine the level temporary over voltages.

Switching surges
They are of short duration and irregular form Typical switching impulse standard form is the 250/2500 sec. ( time to crest/ time to half value wave) The magnitude of internally operated switching surges is related to the system operating voltage In a system where CBS are not subjected to multi re striking the switching surges will rarely exceed 3 pu 2.5 pu would be typical maximum based on which the discharge duty of LA is assessed However in systems above 300 kV, it may be necessary to suppress maximum switching surges to 2 pu or less by the installation of a shunt reactor and/or closing resistors on the circuit breakers

Resonance effects
For voltage level below 300 kV. Resonance effects occur
i. When switching transformer ii. When switching cable and overhead line combination iii. Between lumped capacitive and reactive elements and over head lines iv. Charging long lines without shunt reactor compensation

Resonance effects-- contd

Ferro resonance encountered on a transformer feeder greater than 5 to 10 Km in length When one feeder/transformer on a double circuit is switched out but parallel feeder remains energized, the dead circuit draws energy by captive coupling from the parallel line circuit which resonates with transformer impedance at a sub harmonic frequency (operation procedure such as opening the line isolator at the transformer end on the disconnected circuit will eliminate the problem)

Mode of action of flash over on a line

A lightning flash can impress over voltage on a over head line by
a) Induction when it discharges to earth close to line b) By direct contact on the line either to the earthed structure or to the phase conductor

Induced Voltage Surge

A close flash to ground up to about 14 m away can induce a voltage rise on phase conductors The highest amplitude normally associated is in the region of 200 kV Significant in case of low voltage lines At 11 kV estimated that it accounts for some 90% of all faults Little significance on lines of 275 kV and above

Direct stroke
A direct stroke can be to the earthed tower top or on phase conductor Stroke on earthed lower top, for transmission of shielded design, is innocuous Raise in potential caused by passage of current through tower impedance to earth will be less than with stand strength of line

Direct strokecontd.
However the rise in potential can be severe and exceed with stand capability, if
Tower footing resistance is high Rate of rise of current exceeds a certain level

Flashover may occur Through the system voltage, losses is the frequency of flash over

Direct strokecontd.
Direct stroke on phase conductor May occur if there is a shielding failure i.e. stroke avoids earth wire and lands on line conductor. Discharge current flows equally in both directions. Impedance to earth is half the surge impedance (Z0) of the conductor. IN a 400 kV line Z0 = 175 ohms Voltage rise is sufficient to cause failure of line insulation Minimum critical current for flash over Ic = 2 V I0 Z0
VI0 = minimum flash over voltage for 1/50 Wave

At flash over the impedance through which the discharge current flows drops abruptly from Z0/2 to impedance of tower, x -arm, tower footing

Surge propagation:
Surge waves are propagated at the velocity of light along the conductor On arrival at substation, equipment there in get stressed. Rod gaps and surge arrestors provide necessary protection Waves are subjected to considerable attenuations due to losses both in the conductor (ohmic losses) and corona losses

Lightning discharges
Clarification of lightning discharges stroke (A) stroke (B) Stroke (A) : produced by the charged cloud which induces a charge on the stationery objects such as high buildings etc. Charge distribution causes concentration of potential at the top most point Electro static stress being great at that point ionization of surrounding atmosphere takes place Dielectric strength of surrounding air decreases giving an easy path to lightning stroke. Decrease in dielectric strength of surrounding air takes considerable time

Lightning discharges
Stroke B: A, B & C are three clouds with A and C positively charged and B negatively charged When there is a stroke between (A) and (B) the charge on (C) becomes free and immediately and indiscriminately strikes on any object on the ground For stroke (B) there is no time lag Stroke (B) may completely ignore highest building and strike bare ground. No protection can be arranged against stroke `B` Stroke `A` can be made safe by channelising the charge through a lightning conductor placed on the top of the building

Static induced charges

An over head conductor accumulates statically induced charge when a charged cloud comes above When the cloud is swept away charge on the conductor is released The charge travels on either side giving rise to two travelling waves The earth wire does not prevent such surges

Lightning strokes
Over voltage due to lightning strokes surge impedance of the line = Zs Discharge current = Id Over voltage due to direct stroke = Vd = Id x Zs However current travels in both directions over voltage = Vd = Id x Zs 2 when lightning strikes over earth wire or a tower Over voltage = Id x Ze + Lc di dt Ze = impedance of earth wire Lc is the inductance of the line conductor

Protection against lightning 1. Protection of transmission lines from direct strokes 2. Protection of power stations and substations from direct strokes 3. Protection of electrical equipment from traveling waves

Protection of transmission lines

Against the direct strokes : Most harmful Effective protection required shielding to prevent lightning from striking the electrical conductors. There shall be adequate drain facilities so that the charge can be grounded without affecting Insulators or line conductors.

Design of transmission line against lightning

Design shall consists of (a) General wire of adequate mechanical strength to provide shielding for line conductor. They shall also be non corrosive Resistance of ground wire shall be low for better protection against direct stroke. (b) Adequate clearance between 1. Line conductor and tower 2. Line conductor and earth 3. Clearance between line conductor and ground wire all through the span including mid Span or point of lowest sag. (c) Tower footing resistance shall be low (d) Angle of protection (shielding angle) angle between the normal passing through the ground wire and line joining the supported center points of outer conductor and ground wire. It shall be 30 for 132 & 220 kV lines 20 for 400 kV lines

Effect of number of earth wires

In the absence of a ground wire: When there is a charge cloud over a transmission line without any ground wire There will be two capacitances
(1) Between cloud and conductor C2 (2) Between conductor and earth C1 Induced voltage on the line V L1 = C1 x Ec C1+C2

When ground wire is present it increases capacitance between conductor and earth i.e. C1 Decreases induced voltage on the line. It is observed that presence of a ground wire reduces induced voltage on line to half. For two ground wires the induced voltage comes down to one third Presence of two ground wires also provides better shielding

Earth wires
Disadvantages with ground wire: (a) higher line cost (b) Probable direct shorting between line conductor and ground wire when the later gets cut In 400kV system transmission line towers will have twu earth wires.

Alternative method of line protection

Even after providing ground and reducing the likely induced voltages, harmful voltages can still develop Lightning arrestors act as additional protective devices by by-passing the surges to ground Protector tube is a fiber tube with electrode at earth end. Fitted directly below the conductor The arc type electrode on the top of the tube forms a series gap with conductor

Alternative method of line protection

The lower electrode is solidly grounded In case of surge on the conductor, an arc develops between conductor and top electrode of the tube. Arc shifts within the tube and vaporises some of the fiber of tube wall to emit gases which will quench the arc This tube successfully prevents re-striking The break down voltage of tube shall be less than flash over voltage of the insulation.

Protection against traveling waves

The traveling waves cause the following damages:
i. High peak voltage of surge may cause flash over in the internal winding or external flashover between the terminals of the equipment. ii. steep wave front may cause internal flash over between turns of the transformer iii. Steep wave front resulting into resonance and high voltage may cause internal or external flash over causing building up of oscillations in the equipment

Protective equipment : LAs and Surge diverters They are connected between line and earth

Action of the Surge diverter

A traveling wave reaches surge diverter and attains a prefixed voltage A spark is formed across the gap The diversion provides a low impedance path to earth The surge impedance of the line limits the amplitude of the current flowing to earth to prevent break down of insulation Important aspect is that the surge diverter shall provide low impedance path to earth only when traveling surge reaches the surge diverters

Action of the Surge diverter

It shall absorb any current during normal operation for over voltage surges. It means that it shall not function at power frequencies but function only when abnormal frequencies are applied When there is a discharge through them they shall be capable of carrying the discharge current for some time interval. After the over voltage discharge it must be capable interrupting normal frequency current from flowing to earth as soon as the voltage reaches below the break down value

Switching over voltage protection in a substation

Operation of breakers causes transient over voltages Over voltage value varying between 1.1 Pu to 6 Pu based on switching duty and the type of circuit breaker Over voltage occurs mainly due to exchange of energy between system inductance LI2 and system capacitance CV2 Over voltage occurs during the opening of circuits and closing of long EHV lines Most severe over voltages occurs during the closing unloaded transmission line Preventive measure Provision of Pre insertion resistors ( 400 to 800 ohms per phase) Simultaneous closing of lines at both ends Using shunt reactors, surge arresters etc.

Switching Over voltages in Substations

Switching duty of C.B. Opening of capacitor bank currents, cable charging circuits, filter banks Applications and Remedial Actions Phenomena Switching of shunt Re strike in circuit capacitor banks used for breakers giving over p.f. correction. voltage. - Use of re strike free C.B. for capacitor switching duty. * Long EHV transmission. - Use of pre-closing resistors with circuit breakers. Use of lightning arresters. Use of shunt reactors in transmission lines. Traveling waves travel to and fro giving rise to a switching surge.

EHV lines * Closing unloaded lines * Closing charged lines * Auto re closing of C.B.

Methods of Reducing Switching Over Voltages

Switching operation causing over voltage
Energising an uncharged line

Method to reduce switching over voltage

High voltage shunt reactors are connected to line to reduce power frequency over voltages. Line shunting after opening by means of earthing switch

Elimination of trapped charged on the line

Reduction of current chopping

Opening resistors ( Resistance switching with CB) used only with ABCB

Methods of Reducing Switching Over Voltages

Switching operation causing over voltage
Reducing the switching over voltages due to closing

Method to reduce switching over voltage

Single stage pre closing resistor insertion with CB. Two stage pre closing resistor insertion with CB. Closing resistors in between circuit breaker and shunt reactor Synchronous switching of three poles. Simultaneous operation of circuit breakers at both ends of line, While closing of line While disconnecting reactor

Reducing switching over voltages by improved switching sequence

Use of surge arrestors

Rod gaps or coordinating gaps

They are used on insulators, equipment and bushings Conducting rods are provided between line terminal and earth terminal with an adjustable gap ( Air insulation) Rods are of 12mm dia approx. The gap is adjusted to break down at about 20% below the flash over voltage of the insulation. Spark over causes dead Short circuit Voltage of phase with respect to ground falls very low The rod gaps are no more used consequent to development of surge arrestors.

Over-voltage in Network and Remedies

Phenomena Causes Surges Lightning strokes on overhead lines or substation Effect Line insulation flash over or puncture. The traveling wave reaches substations. The insulation of equipment is stressed by impulse surge Wave travels from C.B. to both sides Transmission line insulator, stressed. Terminal apparatus insulation stressed Remedies -Use of Ground wire - Surge Diverters -Earthing of towers -Lightning Masts

Switching surges

Breaking inductive circuit, the energy stored inductance gives rise a voltage rise across capacitor. Switching of capacitive, line charging currents give rise to a over voltage due to restrike. Closing of EHV lines

-Use of opening resistors with C.B. - Use of restrike free C.B. -Use pre-insertion resistors with C.B.

Over-voltage in Network and Remedies

Phenomena Causes Effect Remedies

Resonance The fault causing resonance between inductance and capacitance in a part of the circuit
Traveling waves

Very high, voltage surges occur. Insulation failure likely to occur.

Filters to eliminate harmonics

High voltage waves get Reflected waves -Proper reflected on reaching gets superimposed switching a junction or end. for initial wave. sequence. Voltage may rise to several time the normal voltage. Poor voltage control Failure of -Proper Voltage transformers and control Rotating Machines

Sustained Power frequency over voltage

Protective Devices Against Lightning Over voltages

Device Rod gaps Where applied Across insulator string, bushing insulators Remarks -Difficult to coordinate -Create dead short circuit -Cheap -Provide effective protection against direct strokes on line conductors towers sub station equipment -instead of providing overhead shielding wires Protect buildings against direct strokes. Angle of Protection = 300

Overhead Ground Wires (earthed)

-Above overhead lines -Above the substation area

Vertical Masts in substations Lightning Masts/Rods (earthed)

-- in sub stations

- Above tall buildings

Protective Devices Against Lightning Over voltages

Device Surge Arresters Where applied -- on incoming lines in each substation -Near terminals of Transformers and generators -Near motor and generators terminals -- near rotating machines connected between phase and ground Remarks -- Diverts over voltage to earth without causing short circuit -Used at every voltage level in every substation and for each line. -Resistance Capacitance Combination absorbs the over voltage surge and reduces steepness of wave

Surge Absorbers

Lightning arrester selection

1. To determine the magnitude of the power frequency phase to ground voltage expected at the proposed arrester location during phase to ground fault, or other abnormal conditions which cause higher voltages to ground than normal. 2. To make a tentative selection of the power frequency voltage rating of the arrester. This selection may have to be reconsidered after step (6) is completed. 3. To select the impulse current likely to be discharged through the arrester. 4. To determine the maximum arrester discharge voltage for the impulse current and type of arrester selected. 5. To establish the full-wave impulse voltage withstand level of the equipment to be protected. 6. To make certain that the maximum arrester discharge voltage is below the full wave impulse, withstand level of the equipment insulation to be protected, by adequate margin. 7. To establish the separation limit between the arrester and the equipment to be protected.

Types of Earthing
For purpose of selection of voltage rating of a LA three types of earthing are considered (I) Effective earthed system: a system is effectively earthed if under any fault condition the line to earth voltages of healthy phases do not exceed 80 % of the system line to line voltage If in a system all transformers have star connected winding with neutrally solidly earthed then the system is effectively earthed However if only few transformers are earthed like that, it is not effectively earthed system

Types of Earthing - conted.

(II) Non effectively earthed system: a) if the line to earth voltage in healthy phases in case of a fault exceed 80% of the line to line voltage but does not exceed 100% of it, the system is called non effectively earthed system b) System with few solidly earthed neutrals c) Systems with neutral Earthed through resistors or reactors of low ohmic value or arc suppression coil (III) Isolated or un earthed neutral systems :system neutrals are not earthed. Line to earth voltage of healthy phases exceed 100% of the line to line voltage.

Selection of lightening arrestors

Tentative selection of arrestor Voltage: Arrestor Voltage rating shall not be less than product of system highest voltage x coefficient of earthing Co-efficient of earthing :
Effectively earthed system 80% Non effectively earthed system - 100 % and isolated earth system

Selection of lightening arrestors

In a 220 kV effectively earthed system
Highest system voltage = 245 kV Co-efficient of earthing = 80% Arrestor voltage rating >= 245x0.8 = 196 kV As per IS 3070 (part I) 1965 the rating is 198 kV

By going for a higher voltage rating for a surge arrestor, the degree of protection for equipment gets reduced.

Selection of arrestor discharge current

This can be calculated from
(a) Spark over voltage of transmission line insulation (b) Surge impedance of the line (c) Residual discharge voltage of LA Ia = 2E- Ea Z Ia = Arrestor discharge current E = Magnitude of incoming surge voltage Ea = Residual discharge voltage of an arrestor Z = Surge impedance of the line

Selection of arrestor discharge current

In a 220 kV system using 11 insulators Transmission line will not permit a traveling wave of a value more than 1025 kVp As per IS 3010 (Part 1) -1965 the residual voltages of LA at a discharge current of 10kA is 649 kV. Considering the surge impedance as 450 ohms Maximum value of discharge current of LA = 2(1025000)-649000 = 3100 Amps 450 The LAs normally in 200 kV system have a discharge current rating of 10 kA.

Selection of arrestor discharge Voltage

Most important characteristic of LA determining the protection level being offered The arrestor discharge voltage shall be less than BIL of equipment for effective protection Discharge voltage depends on (I) discharge current (II) rate of rise of current applied (III) Wave shape of current applied Discharge voltage of LA increases with discharge current. But increase is much restricted due to non linear resistance property. Increase in discharge from 5 kA to 20 kA produces only 25% rise in discharge voltage. Increase in rate of current from 1000 to 5000 Amps per micro second increases discharge voltage by only 35%.

Protective margin of LA
Protective margin of LA = BIL of the equipment--maximum discharge voltage of LA While determining protection level offered by a LA 10% allowances towards drop in lead length and manufacturing tolerance shall be allowed. Protective margin shall be 20% of the BIL of the equipment when closely located In a 220 kV system Discharge voltage of LA = 649 kV Allowing 10 % margin protection level = 713 kV BIL of equipment = 900 kVp Protection margin = 900-713 = 187 kVp There is more than 20 % of the BIL of 180 kV

Protective margin of LA-Continue.

In American system Average discharge voltage x 1.25 +40 kV = BIL protected When adequate margin is not available LAs with lower rating shall be chosen taking risk.

Insulation Co-ordination Scheme

For 220 KV system. L.A. Voltage rating=system highest voltage x co-efficient of earthing =245x.8=196Kv. Selecting standard rating from Table 12.1 column 1,L.A. voltage rating=198 Kv Discharge current rating= 10KA (assumed) Residual voltage, from column 3 of table 12.1,=649Kv (peak) Protection level of the L.A. =649x1.1=714Kv For a margin of 20% between the B.I.L. and the protection level of L.A., the B.I.L. should be =714x1.2=857Kv. Choose standard B.I.L. Table 14.3 (b) Col. 4=900 Kv, The corresponding power freq. I minute test voltage =395kv Switching surge flashover voltage =220 x6.5=825kv 3 Check it is less than B.I.L. of 900kv. Power frequency over voltage=220x3=228kv rms 3 This is less than 395kv. B.I.L. of CBs, instrument transformer, disconnect switches etc,.=900x1.1=990kv. Choose standard B.I.L.=1175kv.

The L.A. voltage rating

Rated system voltage KV 132 220 400 Highest system Arrester rating voltage KV in KV 145 245 420 120/132 198/216 336

Establishment of Separation Limit

When arrestor are to be located away from equipment. A traveling wave coming into the station to location to the discharge voltage of the arrestor. Proximity to transformer or breakers. - Transformer is most expensive price. - Repair to transformer is costly and with higher revenue loss. - Transformers are always at the end of a circuit where voltage regulation. . For circuit breakers and disconnecting switches flash over distance between terminals when in open position in grater than between terminals and ground. . Surge in excess to insulation strength will flash over to ground with out damaging the equipment. . At best there can be only outage . . By reducing BIL of transformer savings in the cost of insulation can be obtained. . Not possible incase of CB or disconnections switches. . Hence a set of LAS shall be closer to transformers.

Location of Lightning Arresters:

The electrical circuit length between L.A. and the transformer bushing terminal (inclusive of lead length in metes for effectively earthed) should not exceed the limits given below:

Rated syst. voltage KV 132kV

220kV 400kV

BIL KV Peak 550 650 900/1050 1425/1550

Max. distance 35.0 45.0 Closer to Trans.

Definition:- Flash over voltages

Impulse flash over voltage: The voltage which will cause flash over of an Insulation When subjected to a 1.2x50s impulse (British standards1x50 sec) (American standards 1.5 x 40sec)

Definition:- Flash over voltages

Basic Insulation level :The crest voltage of standard wave that will not cause flashover of the insulation is referred to as Basic insulation level (Basic impulse insulation voltages are levels expressed in impulse crest voltage with a standard wave not longer than 1.2x50 s. Equipment insulation as tested shall be equal or above the BIL

Impulse spark over volt- time characteristic

This characteristic is obtained by plotting --Time which elapses between the moment the voltage wave is applied and the moment of spark over -- on abscissa -Voltage at the moment of spark over (i) Occurring on the wave front (ii) Occurring on the wave peaks (iii) Crest of the voltage for spark over occurring on the wave tail

LINE INSULATION
Extra high voltage line can be made lightning proof by 1 Efficient shielding 2 Low tower footing resistance equal to or less than 10 ohms shielding angle Transmission lines up to 220kV 30 400 kV at and above 20

Line insulation -contd.

Line insulation shall be sufficient to prevent a flashover from the power-frequency over voltages and Switching Surges. It shall take into consideration the local un favourable circumstances which decrease the flash over voltage (rain, dirt, Insulation pollution etc.,)

OVER VOLTAGE FACTORS

Line Voltages Switching Power frequency flash Surge flash over (Dry & Wet) over 6.5 V pn 220kV 0.3 5.0 V pn 400kV 3.3 Vpn = Phase to Neutral Voltage (rms) Add one or two more Insulators for each string.

OVER VOLTAGE FACTORSContd.

-To take care of one disc in the string becoming defective. -Facilitate hot line maintenance Up to 220 kV Line 1 disc for each string 400 kV Line 2 discs for each string

RECOMMENDED INSULATION LEVEL OF LINE

Normal Vpn Switching over No of system In kV volt. (Wet) kV * discs Voltage (Vph/3) required 132kV 76 76 x6.5=495 5 220kV 127 127x6.5=825 9 400kV 231 231x5=1755 13 * Compared with Impulse FOV (Value)

RECOMMENDED INSULATION LEVEL OF LINEcontd.

Normal system Voltage Vpn In kV Power freq. over volt (wet) (kVrms) No. No. of As per of discs practice discs recom. req.

132kV
220kV 400kV

76
127 231

76x3=228
127x3=381 231x3=762

6
10 20

7
11 22

9/10
13/14 23/24

 Tower forting resistance 10ohms severest lightning discharge 50kA (rms) Impulse strength of Insulation=2x50x10x10=700kV As per the table for 7 discs, the impulse FOV ( kVp =695kVp) For better performance tower forting resistance shall be brought down. For 132kV best is 7 ohms

Co-ordination of line Insulation and SubStation Insulation

Line Insulation is not directly related to the Insulation of equipment within the Sub-Station. Impulse flash over voltage of line Insulation determine the highest surge voltage that can travel into the sub-station. Current through lighting arrestor can be calculated from Surge impudence of line Surge voltage arriving over the line

1 2

Co-ordination of line Insulation and SubStation Insulation

Discharge voltage of the LA on that current is the basic protective level of the substation equipment. Discharge voltage across LA varies with surge current.

BASIC INSULATION LEVEL AS PER IS (2165 1962)

Nominal system volt kV (rms) 132 kV 220 kV 400 kV Highest system volt kV (rms) 145 245 420 Impulse withstand volt kVp for test Full Reduced insulation insulation 650 550 1050 900 1550 1425 One minute power frequent volt kV (rms) Full Reduced insulation insulation 275 230 460 395 680 630

Reduced insulation is used where system is effectively earthed.

INSULATION LEVELS OF EQUIPMENT

Transformers, Isolators, Instrument Transformers are manufactured for the standard Insulation level. Some times transformers, are manufactured for one step lower insulation level for the sake of economy. (LAs will be designed for a still lower level) Where LAs are provided right on the top of the transformer, some of the equipment may lie well out side the protective zone of the LA.

INSULATION LEVELS OF EQUIPMENT

Protective zone is determined based on A With stand level of equipment B Discharge volt of LA C Distance between LA and equipment. Such equipment shall be designed for one step higher Bil. Generally BIL of substation equipment other than transformer are designed for10% higher BIL than that of Transformer .