Indian Contract Act, 1872

[Act No. 9 of Year 1872, dated 25th. April, 1872]

What is a Contract?
2(h) An agreement enforceable by law is a contract; 2(e) Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for each other, is an agreement; 2(b) When a person to whom the proposal is made, signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to be accepted. A proposal, when a accepted, becomes a promise; 2(c) The person making the proposal is called the "promisor", and the person accepting the proposal is called "promisee", 2(a) When one person signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence, he is said to make a proposal; 2(d) When, at the desire of the promisor, the promisee or any other person has done or abstained from doing, or does or abstains from doing, or promises to do or to abstain from doing, something, such act or abstinence or promise is called a consideration for the promise;

What is a Contract?
Elements of an agreement
Agreement = offer or proposal + an acceptance of that offer or proposal

Elements of a contract
Contract = Agreement + legal obligation, i.e. it should be enforceable by law

The law of Contracts is not the whole law of agreements

nor is it the whole law of obligations. It is the law of those agreements which create obligations, and those obligations which have, their source in agreements. Salmond

What agreements are contracts

All agreements are contracts if they are made by the free consent of parties competent to contract, for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object, and are not hereby expressly declared to be void. Nothing herein contained shall affect any law in force in India, and not hereby expressly repealed, by which any contract is required to be made in writing or in the presence of witnesses, or any law relating to the registration of documents. [Section 10]

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF A VALID CONTRACT

Agreement Intention to create legal relationship Free and genuine consent Parties competent to contract Lawful consideration Lawful object Agreement not declared void or illegal Certainty of meaning Possibility of performance Necessary legal formalities

Classification of Contracts
Contracts may be classified in terms of their:
Validity or enforceability Mode of formation Performance

Classification according to validity or enforceability

Valid Voidable Void Illegal unenforceable

Classification of Contracts
Classification according to validity or enforceability
Valid
Have all essential elements discussed earlier

Voidable
An agreement which is enforceable by law at the option of one or more of the parties thereto, but not at the option of the other or others. [Deficiency of free consent = M, F, UI, C, M]

Void
agreement not enforceable by law is said to be void A contract which ceases to be enforceable by law becomes void when it ceases to be enforceable (subsequent impossibility or subsequent illegality)

Illegal
One the consideration or object of which (1) is forbidden by law; or (2) defeats the provision of any law; or (3) is fraudulent; or (4) involves or implies injury to person or property of another; or (5) the court regards it immoral or opposed to the public policy. Also taints collateral transactions with illegality

Unenforceable
Is neither void nor voidable, but can not be enforced because it lacks some item of evidence such as writing, registration or stamping.

Classification of Contracts
Mode of formation
Express terms stated in words (written or spoken) Implied- terms inferred from the conduct of the parties or circumstances.

Performance extent to which performed

Executed (wholly performed) and executory (partially performed) or Unilateral (at the time of formation obligation to perform on the part of one party only) and Bilateral

Offer and Acceptance

OFFER / PROPOSAL
A proposal is defined as When one person signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence, he is said to make a proposal. [Section 2(a)]
The person making the proposal is called the "promisor", and the person accepting the proposal is called "promisee. [Section 2(c)]

Offer and Acceptance

How an offer is made?
Communication, acceptance and revocation of proposals: The communication of proposals, the acceptance of proposals, and the revocation of proposals and acceptance, respectively, are deemed to be made by any act or omission of the party proposing, accepting or revoking, by which he intends to communicate such proposal, acceptance or revocation, or which has the effect of communicating it. [Section 3]

Thus an offer can be made

by an act i.e. by words (written or verbal), by conduct (silenceO) or by omission (to do something) Implied offer

Offer implied from the conduct of the parties or from the circumstances of the case is known as implied offer.

Offer and Acceptance

Specific and General Offer:
an offer can be made either:
To a definite person or a group of persons, or To the public at large

Carlill v. Carbolic Smoke Ball Co.

Essential Requirements of a valid offer

Must be made with a view to obtain acceptance [Section 2a].

Must be made with a intention of creating legal relationship. [ Balfour v. Balfour]

Terms must be definite, unambiguous and certain or capable of being made certain [Section 29]. Offer must be distinguished from mere declaration of intention or an invitation to offer.
D are Statements made without an intention to create a binding legal obligation amount to a mere declaration of intent and not to a proposal. An offer is distinct from an invitation to offer. College prospectus for admission, invitation of offers by auctioneer at the time of auction, display of goods etc. (final expression of willingness)

It must be communicated to the offeree before it can be accepted.

[Laxman Shukla V. Gauri Datt]

Essential Requirements of a valid offer

The offer must not contain a term the non-compliance of which may be assumed to amount to acceptance. A tender is an offer as it is in response to a invitation to offer.
Specific or Definite Standing

The special terms, forming the part of the offer, must be dully brought to the notice of the oferee at the time the offer is made.
By drawing his attention to them specifically By inferring that a man of ordinary prudence could find them by exercising ordinary intelligence

To identical cross offers do not make a offer.

Where two parties make identical offers to each other, in ignorance of each others offer, the offers are known as cross-offers and neither of the two can be called an acceptance of the other and, therefore there is no contract.

Termination or Lapse of Offer

An offer lapses
after stipulated or reasonable time. by death or insanity of the offeror or the offeree before acceptance.

An offer terminates
when rejected by the offeree. when revoked by the offeror before acceptance By not being accepted in the mode prescribed, or if no mode is prescribed, in some usual and reasonable manner. When the condition is not accepted in case of a conditional offer. By counter offer by offeree (acceptance of offer but subject to certain condition or qualification).

Acceptance
When a person to whom the proposal is made, signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to be accepted. A proposal, when a accepted, becomes a promise. [Section 2b]

Acceptance how made? May be express or implied.

It is express when signified either in writing, or by word of mouth, or by performance of some required act. Implied when it is to be gathered from surrounding circumstances or the conduct of the parties.

Who can accept?

Essentials of a valid acceptance

Must be absolute and unqualified. Must be communicated. Must be according to the mode prescribed. Must be given within the time specified or within a reasonable time. Must be in response to an offer. Must be made before the offer lapses. Must be given by the person to whom the offer is made.

Communication of offer acceptance and revocation

Communication when complete [Sec. 4]
The communication of a proposal is complete when it comes to the knowledge of the person to whom it is made. The communication of an acceptance is complete
as against the proposer, when it is put in a course of transmission to him so at to be out of the power of the acceptor; as against the acceptor, when it comes to the knowledge of the proposer.

The communication of a revocation is complete

as against the person who makes it, when it is put into a course of transmission to the person to whom it is made, so as to be out of the power of the person who makes it; as against the person to whom it is made, when it comes to his knowledge.

Communication of offer acceptance and revocation

Revocation of Proposals and acceptance [Sec 5]
A proposal may be revoked at any time before the communication of its acceptance is complete as against the proposer, but not afterwards. An acceptance may be revoked at any time before the communication of the acceptance is complete as against the acceptor, but no afterwards.

Revocation how made [Sec 6]

A proposal is revoked (1) by the communication of notice of revocation by the proposer to the other party; (2) by the lapse of the time prescribed in such proposal for its acceptance, or, if no time is so prescribed, by the lapse of a reasonable time, without communication of the acceptance; (3) by the failure of the acceptor to fulfill a condition precedent to acceptance; or (4) by the death or insanity of the proposer, if the fact of the death or insanity comes to the knowledge of the acceptor before acceptance.

Capacity of Contract
Who are competent to contract [Sec 11]
Every person is competent to contract who is of the age of majority according to the law to which he is subject, and who is sound mind and is not disqualified from contracting by any law to which he is subject.

Minority
According to section 3 of Indian Majority Act, 1875, a minor is a person who has not completed 18 years of age. However, in following cases, a minor attains majority after 21 years of age:
Where a guardian of minors person or property has been appointed under The Guardians and Wards Act, 1860, or Where the superintendence of minors property is assumed by a Court of Wards.

Minors Contract
A contract with or by a minor is void and a minor, therefore, cannot, bind himself by a contract. (Mohiri Bibi v. Dharmodas Ghose) A minor can be a promisee or a beneficiary. A minors agreement can not be ratified by the minor on his attaining majority. If a minor has received any benefit under a void contract, he can not be asked to refund the same. A minor is always allowed to plead minority. (Doctrine of estoppel) Leslie v. Shiell A minor cannot be a partner in a partnership. A minors estate is liable to a person who supplies necessaries of life to a minor, or to one whom minor is legally bound to support (goods and services both). (Nash v. Inman and Roberts v. Gray) Minors parents/guardians are not liable to a minors creditor for the breach of contract by the minor whether the C is for necessaries or not. A minor can act as an agent and bind his principal by his acts without incurring personal liability.

Consideration
What the promisor demand as the price of his promise. Something of value given by both parties to a contract that induces them to enter into the agreement to exchange mutual performances. In Currie V. Misa C was termed as a valuable C in the sense of the law may consist either some right, interest, profit or benefit accruing to one party, or some forbearance, detriment, loss or responsibility given, suffered or undertaken by the other. When, at the desire of the promisor, the promisee or any other person has done or abstained from doing, or does or abstains from doing, or promises to do or to abstain from doing, something, such act or abstinence or promise is called a consideration for the promise [Sec 2(D)] Thus the term consideration is used in the sense of quid-pro-quo which means something in return. This something may be some benefit, right, interest or profit or it may also be some forbearance, detriment, loss or responsibility upon the other party.

Consideration
Importance of consideration:
A promise without C is purely gratuitous and, however sacred and binding in honor it may be, cannot create a legal obligation. Contract = promise + the C for the promise Thus generally, a contract can not be thought of without consideration. No consideration, no contract is the rule of law. Abdul Aziz V. Mazum Ali and Kedar Nath V. Gori Mohamed Since agreement Sec 2(e), is a promise in exchange for a promise, each promise forming consideration for other. It will therefore be an inconsistency to think of an agreement and consequently contract without C. Thus, we can say: Except in certain cases, a contract without C cannot be thought of and if made, it is devoid of any legal obligation.

Rules as to consideration
C must move at the desire of the promisor. C may move from the promisee or any other person.
Stranger to contract V. stranger to C A stranger to consideration can sue but a stranger to a contract can not. Exceptions:
Beneficiary in a trust Provision of marriage expenses of female in joint hindu family Family members who were not part in a family settlement Assignment to a contract An acknowledgement of a liability

C need not be adequate. C must be real and valuable. C must be legal. C may be present (executed), future (executory) or past.

Exceptions to the rule

No Consideration no contract
An agreement without C is valid if:
It is expressed in writing and It is registered (under the law of R), and It is made on account of natural love and affection, and Made between parties standing in a near relation to each other. [Section 25(1)]

A promise without C is valid if, it is a promise to compensate wholly or in part, a person who has already voluntarily done something for the promisor, or something which the promisor was legally compellable to do. [Section 25(2)] A promise to pay, wholly or in part a debt which is barred by the law of limitation can be enforced if (a) it is in writing, and (b) is signed by the debtor or his authorised agent. [Section 25(3)]

Discharge of Contract
A contract may be discharged in following ways:
By performance or tender By mutual consent By subsequent impossibility By operation of law By breach

By performance or tender:
the obvious mode of discharge is by performance, that is, the parties have performed or offer to perform, their respective promises. The offer of performance or tender has the same effect as performance.

Discharge of Contract
By mutual consent:
If the parties to a contract agree to substitute a new contract for it, or to rescind or alter it, the original contract is discharged. [Sec 62]
Novation substitution of new contract for the original one; either between same parties or different parties. Rescission cancellation of all or some of the terms by mutual agreement Alteration changing of certain terms by mutual agreement Remission acceptance of a lessor some than what was contracted for or a lesser fulfillment of the promise made. (without consideration) Waiver relinquishment or abandonment of a right. Merger where an inferior right possessed by a person coincides with a superior right of same person.

Discharge of Contract
By subsequent impossibility [Sec 56]
An agreement to do an act impossible in itself is void. Contract to do act afterwards becoming impossible or unlawful: A contract to do an act which, after the contract is made, becomes impossible or, by reason of some event which the promisor could not prevent, unlawful, becomes void when the act becomes impossible or unlawful. Subsequent impossibility in England is referred to as Doctrine of Frustration. A contract is deemed to have become impossible of performance under following circumstances:
Destruction of subject matter of the contract. By the death or disablement of the parties. Subsequent illegality Declaration of war Non-existence or non-occurrence of a particular state of things

Discharge of Contract
Exceptions: apart from cases mentioned above, impossibility does not discharge contract. Some of the circumstances in which a contract is not discharged on the ground of subsequent impossibility are:
Difficulty of performance Commercial impossibility If the third person, on whose work the promissor relied fails to perform Strikes, lockouts and civil disturbances Failure of one of the objects

Discharge of Contract
Effect of Supervening Impossibility
A contract to do an act which, after the contract is made, becomes impossible or, by reason of some event which the promisor could not prevent, unlawful, becomes void when the act becomes impossible or unlawful. Where one person has promised to be something which he knew or, with reasonable diligence, might have known, and which the promisee did not know to be impossible or unlawful, such promisor must make compensation to such promise for any loss which such promisee sustains through the non-performance of the promise.

When an agreement is discovered to be void, or when a contract becomes void, any person who has received any advantage under such agreement or contract is bound to restore, it, or to make compensation for it, to the person from whom he received it.

Discharge of Contract
By operation of law
Discharge under this head may take place as follows:
By death By insolvency By merger By the unauthorized alteration of terms of a written document

By breach of Contract
Breach may arise in two ways:
Anticipatory breach when a party repudiates the C before the time fixed for performance arrived or when a party by his own act disables himself from performing. Consequences: promisee may either (1) rescind the contract and treat the contract as at an end, and at once sue for damages, or (2) may elect not to rescind but to treat the C operative and wait for the time of performance and then hold the other party liable for the consequence. In later case the party who has repudiated may still perform if he can. Thus the C is discharged only when the aggrieved party accepts the repudiation of the contract i.e. elects to rescind the contract.

Discharge of Contract
Actual breach may take place (a) at the time when performance is due person does not perform his part at the stipulated time. 55. Effect of failure to perform a fixed time
When a party to a contract promises to do a certain thing at or before a specified time, and fails to do such thing at or before the specified time, the contract or so much of it as has not been performed, becomes voidable at the option of the promisee, if the intention of the parties was that time should be of essence of the contract. If it was not the intention of the parties that time should be of the essence of the contract, the contract does not become voidable by the failure to do such thing at or before the specified time; but the promisee is entitled to compensation from the promisor for any loss occasioned to him by such failure. If, in case of a contract voidable on account of the promisor's failure to perform his promise at the time agreed, the promisee accepts performance of such promise at any time other than agreed, the promisee cannot claim compensation of any loss occasioned by the non-performance of the promise at the time agreed, unless, at the time of acceptance, he give notice to the promisor of his intention to do so.

(b) during the performance one party fails or refuses to perform his obligation.

Remedies for Breach of a Contract

As soon as either party commits a breach of the contract, the other party becomes entitled to any of the following relief:
Rescission of the contract Damages for the loss sustained or suffered A decree for specific performance An injunction Suit on Quantum Meruit

Remedies for Breach of a Contract

Rescission of the contract
When a breach is committed by one party, the other party may sue to treat the contract as rescinded. In such a case the aggrieved party is freed from all obligations under the contract. Person rescinding the C is entitled to compensation for any damage which he has sustained because of non-fulfillment of C.

Damages
Generally speaking are of four kinds:
Ordinary damages Special damages Vindictive, or Punitive or Exemplary damages Nominal damages

Remedies for Breach of a Contract

Ordinary damages
Are those which naturally arose in the usual course of things from such C. The measure is the difference between the contract price and market price at the date of breach.

Special damages
Are claimed in case of loss of profit etc. when there are certain special or extraordinary circumstances present and their existence is communicated to the promisor, the non performance entitles the promisee to not only claim ordinary damages but also damages that may result there from.

Vindictive, or Punitive or Exemplary damages

Are awarded with a view to punish the defendant and not solely with an idea to compensate the plaintiff.

Nominal damages
Are awarded in cases of breach of C where there is only a technical violation of legal right but no substantial loss is caused thereby. The damages awarded in such cases are very small.

Duty to mitigate damages suffered

Remedies for Breach of a Contract

A decree for specific performance
Where damages are not adequate remedy, the court may direct the party in breach to carry out his promise according to terms of the contract. This is called specific performance of contract. Generally it is granted where:
Monetary compensation is not an adequate relief The contract is of a personal nature Where it is not possible for the Court to supervise the performance of the contract The contract is made by a company beyond its objects

An injunction
Means an order of the court. Where a party is in breach of a negative term of contract (does something which he promised not to do) , the Court may, by issuing an order, prohibit him from doing so.

Suit on Quantum Meruit

Means as much as is merited (earned). The normal rule is that unless a party has performed his promise entirely, it can not claim performance from other. However there are certain exceptions to this rule.

Contract of Agency
"Agent" and "principal" defined
An "agent" is a person employed to do any act for another, or to represent another in dealing with third persons. The person for whom such act is done, or who is so represented, is called the "principal". [Sec 182]

Who may employ agent

Any person who is of the age of majority according to the law to which he is subject, and who is of sound mind, may employ an agent. [Sec 183]

Who may be an agent

As between the principal and third persons, any person may become an agent, but no person who is not of the age of majority and sound mind can become an agent, so as to be responsible to the principal according to the provisions in that behalf herein contained. [ Sec 184]

Agent and Servant: direct supervision and control

Contract of Agency
Creation of Agency
Express authority Implied authority
Principal bound by estoppel Principal bound by ratification Agent authority in an emergency

Essential of valid ratification- with full knowledge,for whole transaction,not injurious to 3rd party

Contract of Agency
Duties of Agent:
To conduct the business of agency according to principals direction. Conduct the business with skill and diligence that is generally possessed by persons engaged in similar business. To render proper accounts In case of difficulty to communicate with the principal. Not to make any secret profits. Not to deal on his own account Not entitled to remuneration for business mis-conducted. Not to disclose confidential information. Protection of interests entrusted to him in case of termination of agency in because of death or of becoming of unsound mind of the principal.

Contract of Agency
Rights of Agent:
Right to receive agreed or reasonable remuneration. Right to retain money of the principal towards advances made or expenses properly incurred by him. Right of lien, i.e., to retain properties of the principal for the amount due to himself for commission, disbursements and services rendered. Right of stoppage-in-transit in case:
Where he purchased goods with his own funds or by incurring personal liability. Where he holds himself liable for the price of goods sold

Right to be indemnified against consequences of all lawful acts done within the authority.

Contract of Agency
Enforcement and consequences of agent's contract : Contracts entered into through an agent, and obligations arising from acts done by an agent, may be enforced in the same manner, and will have the same legal consequences as if the contracts had been entered into the acts done by the principal in person. [Sec 226]
(a) A buys goods from B, knowing that he is an agent for their sale, but not knowing who is the principal. B's principal is the person entitled to claim from A the price of the goods, and A cannot, in a suit by the principal, set-off against that claim a debt due to himself from B. (b) A, being B's agent; with authority to receive money on his behalf, receives from C a sum of money due to B. C is discharged of his obligation to pay the sum in question to B.

Principal how far bound, when agent exceeds authority: When an agent does more than he is authorised to do, and when the part of what he does, which is within his authority, can be separated from the part which is beyond his authority, so much only of what he does as is within his authority is binding as between him and his principal. [Sec 227]
A, being owner of a ship and cargo, authorises B to procure an insurance for 4,000 rupees on the ship. B procures a policy for 4,000 rupees on the ship, and another for the like sum on the cargo. A is bound to pay the premium for the policy on the ship, but not the premium for the policy on the cargo.

Principal not bound when excess of agent's authority is not separable: Where an agent does more than he is authorised to do, and what he does beyond the scope of his authority cannot be separated from what is within it, the principal is not bound to recognise the transaction. [Sec 228] A authorises B to buy 500 sheep for him. B buys 500 sheep and 200 lambs for a sum of 6,000 rupees. A may repudiate the whole transaction.

Contract of Agency
Termination of Agency:
By revocation by principal On the expiry of fixed period of time On the performance of the specific purpose In the event of insanity or death of the principal or agent On destruction of the subject matter of agency In the event of the insolvency of the principal By renunciation of agency by the agent