Digital Fundamentals

CHAPTER 1 (CONT…)
Number Systems, Operations, and Codes

Slide 1
1. Number Systems
1.1 Decimal Numbers

• The decimal number system has ten digits:

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9

• The decimal numbering system has a base

of 10 with each position weighted by a factor
of 10:

Slide 2
1.2 Binary Numbers

• The binary number system has two digits:

0 and 1

• The binary numbering system has a base of 2

with each position weighted by a factor of 2:

Slide 3
• Conversion
2.1 Binary to Decimal Conversion
• Convert binary to decimal by summing the
positions that contain a 1.

1 0 0 1 0 1 2

2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 32 + 4 + 1 = 3710
5 4 3 2 1 0

Slide 4
2.2 Decimal to Binary Conversion

• Two methods to convert decimal to

binary:
– Reverse process described in 2.1
– Use repeated division

Slide 5
Decimal to Binary Conversion (cont…)

• Reverse process described in 2.1

– Note that all positions must be accounted for

3710 = 2 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 0 + 2
5 2 0

1 0 0 1 0 12

Slide 6
Decimal to Binary Conversion (cont…)

• Repeated division steps:

– Divide the decimal number by 2
– Write the remainder after each division until a
quotient of zero is obtained.
– The first remainder is the LSB and the last is
the MSB
• Note, when done on a calculator, a fractional
answer indicates a remainder of 1.

Slide 7
Decimal to Binary Conversion (cont…)

• Repeated division –
This flowchart
describes the
process and can be
used to convert from
decimal to any other
number system.

Slide 8
3. Hexadecimal Number System
• Decimal, binary, and hexadecimal
numbers

Slide 9
Hexadecimal Number System (cont….)

• Most digital systems deal with groups

of bits in even powers of 2 such as 8,
16, 32, and 64 bits.
• Hexadecimal uses groups of 4 bits.
• Base 16
– 16 possible symbols
– 0-9 and A-F

Slide 10
Hexadecimal Number System (cont….)

• Convert from hex to decimal by

multiplying each hex digit by its
positional weight.
Example:

16316 = 1× (16 2 ) + 6 × (161 ) + 3 × (160 )

= 1× 256 + 6 ×16 + 3 ×1
= 35510

Slide 11
 Hexadecimal Number System (cont….)

• Convert from decimal to hex by using the

repeated division method used for decimal
to binary and decimal to octal conversion.
• Divide the decimal number by 16
• The first remainder is the LSB and the last
is the MSB.
– Note, when done on a calculator a decimal remainder
can be multiplied by 16 to get the result. If the
remainder is greater than 9, the letters A through F
are used.

Slide 12
 Hexadecimal Number System (cont….)

Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Binary 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

• Example of hex to binary conversion:

9F216 = 9 F 2
1001 1111 0010 = 1001111100102

Slide 13
Hexadecimal Number System (cont….)

• Convert from binary to hex by

grouping bits in four starting with the
LSB.
• Each group is then converted to the
hex equivalent
• Leading zeros can be added to the
left of the MSB to fill out the last
group.

Slide 14
 Hexadecimal Number System (cont….)

Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Binary 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

• Example of binary to hex conversion.

(Note the addition of leading zeroes)

11101001102 = 0011 1010 0110

= 3 A 6
= 3A616
• Counting in hex requires a reset and carry after
reaching F.
Slide 15
Hexadecimal Number System (cont….)

• Hexadecimal is useful for

representing long strings of bits.
• Understanding the conversion
process and memorizing the 4 bit
patterns for each hexadecimal digit
will prove valuable later.

Slide 16
4. Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

• Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) is another

way to present decimal numbers in binary
form.
• BCD is widely used and combines
features of both decimal and binary
systems.
• Each digit is converted to a binary
equivalent.

Slide 17
Binary Coded Decimal (cont…)

Decimal and BCD digits

Slide 18
Binary Coded Decimal (cont…)
• To convert the number 87410 to BCD:

8 7 4
0100 0111 0100 = 010001110100BCD

• Each decimal digit is represented using 4

bits.
• Each 4-bit group can never be greater
than 9.
• Reverse the process to convert BCD to
decimal.

Slide 19
Binary Coded Decimal (cont…)

• BCD is not a number system.

• BCD is a decimal number with each
digit encoded to its binary equivalent.
• A BCD number is not the same as a
straight binary number.
• The primary advantage of BCD is the
relative ease of converting to and from
decimal.

Slide 20
5. Digital Codes

• Gray code:
 The gray code is
used in applications
where numbers
change rapidly.
 In the gray code,
only one bit changes
from each value to
the next.

Slide 21
 Digital Codes (cont…)

• ASCII – American Standard Code for

Information Interchange.
– Seven bit code: 27 = 128 possible code
groups
– Table 2-4 lists the standard ASCII codes
– Examples of use are: to transfer information
between computers, between computers and
printers, and for internal storage.

Slide 22
 Digital Codes (cont…)
• ASCII code (control characters)

Slide 23
Digital Codes (cont…)
• ASCII code (graphic symbols 20h – 3Fh)

Slide 24
 Digital Codes (cont…)
• ASCII code (graphic symbols 40h – 5Fh)

Slide 25
Digital Codes (cont…)
• ASCII code (graphic symbols 60h – 7Fh)

Slide 26
Digital Codes (cont…)
Extended ASCII code (80h – FFh)
• Non-English alphabetic characters
• Currency symbols
• Greek letters
• Math symbols
• Drawing characters
• Bar graphing characters
• Shading characters

Slide 27
6. Putting It All Together
Decimal Binary Hexadecimal BCD Gray
0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0001 0001
2 10 2 0010 0011
3 11 3 0011 0010
4 100 4 0100 0110
5 101 5 0101 0111
6 110 6 0110 0101
7 111 7 0111 0100
8 1000 8 1000 1100
9 1001 9 1001 1101
10 1010 A 0001 0000 1111
11 1011 B 0001 0001 1110
12 1100 C 0001 0010 1010
13 1101 D 0001 0011 1011
14 1110 E 0001 0100 1001
15 1111 F 0001 0101 1000

Slide 28
7. Complements of Binary Numbers

• 1’s complements
• 2’s complements

Slide 29
Complements of Binary Numbers (cont…)

• 1’s complement

Slide 30
Complements of Binary Numbers (cont…)

• 2’s complement

Slide 31
8. Signed Numbers

• Signed-magnitude form
• 1’s and 2’s complement form
• Decimal value of signed numbers
• Range of values
• Floating-point numbers

Slide 32
Signed Numbers (cont…)

• Signed-magnitude form

– The sign bit is the left-most bit in a

signed binary number
– A 0 sign bit indicates a positive
magnitude
– A 1 sign bit indicates a negative
magnitude

Slide 33
Signed Numbers (cont…)

• 1’s complement form

– A negative value is the 1’s complement of
the corresponding positive value
• 2’s complement form
– A negative value is the 2’s complement of
the corresponding positive value

Slide 34
Signed Numbers (cont…)

• Decimal value of signed numbers

– Sign-magnitude
– 1’s complement
– 2’s complement

• Range of Values
2’s complement form:
– (2n – 1) to + (2n – 1 – 1)

Slide 35
Signed Numbers (cont…)

• Floating-point numbers
– Single-precision (32 bits)
– Double-precision (64 bits)
– Extended-precision (80 bits)

Slide 36
8.1 Arithmetic Operations with
Signed Numbers

• Addition
• Subtraction
• Multiplication
• Division

Slide 37
Arithmetic Operations with Signed
Numbers (cont…)
Addition of Signed Numbers
• The parts of an addition function are:
– Addend
– Augend
– Sum

Numbers are always added two at a time.

Slide 38
Arithmetic Operations with Signed
Numbers (cont…)
Four conditions for adding numbers:
• Both numbers are positive.
• A positive number that is larger than a
negative number.
• A negative number that is larger than a
positive number.
• Both numbers are negative.

Slide 39
Arithmetic Operations with Signed
Numbers (cont…)

Signs for Addition

• When both numbers are positive, the
sum is positive.
• When the larger number is positive and
the smaller is negative, the sum is
positive. The carry is discarded.

Slide 40
Arithmetic Operations with Signed
Numbers (cont…)

Signs for Addition

• When the larger number is negative and
the smaller is positive, the sum is
negative (2’s complement form).
• When both numbers are negative, the
sum is negative (2’s complement form).
The carry bit is discarded.

Slide 41
Arithmetic Operations with Signed
Numbers (cont…)
Subtraction of Signed Numbers
• The parts of a subtraction function are:
– Subtrahend
– Minuend
– Difference

Subtraction is addition with the sign of the

subtrahend changed.

Slide 42
Arithmetic Operations with Signed
Numbers (cont…)

Subtraction
• The sign of a positive or negative binary
number is changed by taking its 2’s
complement
• To subtract two signed numbers, take
the 2’s complement of the subtrahend
and add. Discard any final carry bit.

Slide 43
Arithmetic Operations with Signed
Numbers (cont…)
Multiplication of Signed Numbers
• The parts of a multiplication function
are:
– Multiplicand
– Multiplier
– Product
Multiplication is equivalent to adding a
number to itself a number of times equal to
the multiplier.

Slide 44
Arithmetic Operations with Signed
Numbers (cont…)

There are two methods for multiplication:

• Direct addition
• Partial products

The method of partial products is the most

commonly used.

Slide 45
Arithmetic Operations with Signed
Numbers (cont…)

Multiplication of Signed Numbers

• If the signs are the same, the product is
positive.
• If the signs are different, the product is
negative.

Slide 46
Arithmetic Operations with Signed
Numbers (cont…)
Division of Signed Numbers
• The parts of a division operation are:
– Dividend
– Divisor
– Quotient

Division is equivalent to subtracting the

divisor from the dividend a number of
times equal to the quotient.

Slide 47
Arithmetic Operations with Signed
Numbers (cont…)

Division of Signed Numbers

• If the signs are the same, the quotient is
positive.
• If the signs are different, the quotient is
negative.

Slide 48
9. Parity Method for Error Detection

• Binary data and codes are frequently moved

between locations. For example:
– Digitized voice over a microwave link.
– Storage and retrieval of data from magnetic and
optical disks.
– Communication between computer systems over
telephone lines using a modem.
• Electrical noise can cause errors during
transmission.
• Many digital systems employ methods for error
detection (and sometimes correction).

Slide 49
Parity Method for Error Detection
(cont…)
• The parity method of error detection
requires the addition of an extra bit to a
code group.
• This extra bit is called the parity bit.
• The bit can be either a 0 or 1, depending
on the number of 1s in the code group.
• There are two methods, even and odd.

Slide 50
Parity Method for Error Detection
(cont…)
• Even parity method – the total
number of bits in a group including
the parity bit must add up to an even
number.
– The binary group 1 0 1 1 would require
the addition of a parity bit 1 1 0 1 1
• Note that the parity bit may be added at
either end of a group.

Slide 51
Parity Method for Error Detection
(cont…)

• Odd parity method – the total number

of bits in a group including the parity
bit must add up to an odd number.
– The binary group 1 1 1 1 would require
the addition of a parity bit 1 1 1 1 1

Slide 52
Parity Method for Error Detection
(cont…)
• The transmitter and receiver must
“agree” on the type of parity checking
used.
• Two bit errors would not indicate a
parity error.
• Both odd and even parity methods are
used, but even seems to be used
more often.

Slide 53
Parity Method for Error Detection (cont…)
• Parity error codes

Slide 54
Parity Method for Error Detection (cont…)
0000000 0
0000111 1
• Hamming error codes 0011011 2
– Hamming code words 0011110 3
0101010 4
– Hex equivalent of the 0101101 5
data bits 0110011 6
0110100 7
1001011 8
1001100 9
1010010 A
1010101 B
1100001 C
1100110 D
1111000 E
1111111 F

Slide 55