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Lecture 4 - Fundamentals

January 22, 2003


CVEN 444
Lecture Goals

Loading (continued)
Concrete Mixing and Proportioning
Concrete Properties
Steel Reinforcement

Earthquake Loads
Inertia forces caused by earthquake motion

F = m * a

Distribution of forces can be found using
equivalent static force procedure (code, not
allowed for every building) or using dynamic
analysis procedures
Earthquake Loads
Inertia forces caused by earthquake motion.
Equivalent Static Force Procedure for example, in
ASCE 7-95:

V = C
s
* W
where
V = Total lateral base shear
C
s
= Seismic response coefficient
W = Total dead load
Earthquake Loads
Total Dead Load, W:
1.0 * Dead Load
+ 0.25 * Storage Loads
+ larger of partition loads or 10 psf
+ Weight of permanent equipment
+ contents of vessels
+ 20% or more of snow load
Earthquake Loads

where
C
v
= Seismic coefficient based on soil profile and A
v

C
a
= Seismic coefficient based on soil profiled and A
a

R = Response modification factor (ability to deform in
inelastic range)
T = Fundamental period of the structure

R
C
and
T R
C
of smaller C
a v
s
5 . 2 2 . 1
3 / 2

=
Earthquake Loads

where
T = Fundamental period of the structure

T = C
T
h
n

3/4

where C
T
= 0.030 for MRF of concrete
0.020 for other concrete buildings.
h
n
= Building height
R
C
and
T R
C
of smaller C
a v
s
5 . 2 2 . 1
3 / 2

=
Earthquake Map
Roof Loads
Ponding of rainwater
Roof must be able to support all rainwater that could
accumulate in an area if primary drains were blocked.
Ponding Failure:
Rain water ponds in area of maximum deflection
increases deflection
allows more accumulation of water cycle
continues potential failure
Roof Loads
Roof loads are in addition to snow loads

Minimum loads for workers and construction
materials during erection and repair
Construction Loads

Construction materials

Weight of formwork supporting weight
of fresh concrete
Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
Concrete: Composite material composed of
portland cement, fine aggregate (sand),
coarse aggregate (gravel/stone), and water;
with or without other additives.

Hydration: Chemical process in which the
cement powder reacts with water and then
sets and hardens into a solid mass, bonding
the aggregates together
Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning

Heat of Hydration: Heat is released during the
hydration process.
In large concrete masses heat is dissipated
slowly temperature rises and
volume expansion later cooling
causes contraction. Use special
measures to control cracking.
Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
1. Proportioning: Goal is to achieve mix with
Adequate strength
Proper workability for placement
Low cost
Low Cost:
Minimize amount of cement
Good gradation of aggregates (decreases
voids and cement paste required)
Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
Water-Cement Ratio (W/C)
Increased W/C: Improves plasticity and
fluidity of the mix.
Increased W/C: Results in decreased
strength due to larger volume of voids in
cement paste due to free water.

Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
Water-Cement Ratio (W/C) (cont..)
Complete hydration of cement requires
W/C ~ 0.25.
Need water to wet aggregate surfaces,
provide mobility of water during
hydration and to provide workability.
Typical W/C = 0.40-0.60

Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
Water/Concrete table

Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
Proportions have been given by volume or
weight of cement to sand to gravel (ie.
1:2:4) with W/C specified separately
Now customary to specify per 94 lb. Bag of
cement: wt. Of water, sand & gravel
Batch quantity: wt. per cubic yard of each
component
Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
2. Aggregates
70-75% of volume of hardened concrete
Remainder = hardened cement paste,
uncombined water, air voids
More densely packed aggregate give better
strength
weather resistance (durability)
Economical
Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
2. Aggregates
Fine aggregate: sand (passes through a
No. 4 sieve; 4 openings per inch)
Coarse aggregate: gravel
Good gradation:
2-3 size groups of sand
Several size groups of gravel


Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
Maximum size of coarse aggregate in RC
structures: Must fit into forms and between
reinforcing bars:(318-99, 3.3.2)
1/5 narrowest form dimension
1/3 depth of slab
3/4 minimum distance between
reinforcement bars

Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning

Aggregate Strength
Strong aggregates: quartzite, felsite
Weak aggregates: sandstone, marble
Intermediate strength: limestone, granite

Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning

Quality
Workability
Economical
In the design of concrete mixes, three principal
requirements for concrete are of importance:
Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
Quality of concrete is measured by its
strength and durability. The principal factors
affecting the strength of concrete , assuming
a sound aggregates, W/C ratio, and the
extent to which hydration has progressed.
Durability of concrete is the ability of the
concrete to resist disintegration due to
freezing and thawing and chemical attack.
Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
Workability of concrete may be defined as a
composite characteristic indicative of the ease
with which the mass of plastic material may
deposited in its final place without
segregation during placement, and its ability
to conform to fine forming detail.
Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
Economical takes into account effective use
of materials, effective operation, and ease of
handling. The cost of producing good quality
concrete is an important consideration in the
overall cost of the construction project.
Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
The influence of ingredients on properties
of concrete.
Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
3. Workability
Workability measured by slump test
1. Layer 1: Fill 1/3 full. 25 stokes
2. Layer 2: Fill 2/3 full. 25 stokes
3. Layer 3: Fill full. 25 stokes
4. Lift cone and measure slump (typically 2-6 in.)
1 2 3 4
12
slump
Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
Slump test - The measurement of the consistency of the
mix is done with the slump-cone test. The recommend
consistency for various classes of concrete structures .
Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning

4. Admixtures
Applications:
Improve workability
Accelerate or retard setting and
hardening
Aid in curing
Improve durability




Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
4. Admixtures
Air-Entrainment: Add air voids with bubbles
Help with freeze/thaw cycles, workability, etc.
Decreases density: reduces strength, but also
decreases W/C
Superplasticizers: increase workability by
chemically releasing water from fine aggregates.
Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
5. Types of Cement
Type I: General Purpose
Type II: Lower heat of hydration than
Type I
Type III: High Early Strength
Higher heat of hydration
quicker strength (7 days vs. 28 days for
Type I)
Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
5. Types of Cement

Type IV: Low Heat of Hydration
Gradually heats up, less distortion
(massive structures).
Type V: Sulfate Resisting
For footings, basements, sewers, etc.
exposed to soils with sulfates.
Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
Failure Mechanism of Concrete
Shrinkage Microcracks
are the initial shrinkage
cracks due to
carbonation shrinkage,
hydration shrinkage, and
drying shrinkage.
Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
Failure Mechanism of Concrete
Bond Microcracks are
extensions of shrinkage
microcracks, as the
compression stress field
increases, the shrinkage
microcracks widen but
do not propagates into
the matrix. Occur at 15-
20 % ultimate strength of
concrete.
Concrete Mixing and
Proportioning
Failure Mechanism of Concrete
Matrix Microcracks - are
microcracks that occur in
the matrix. The propagate
from 20% f
c
. Occur up to
30-45 % ultimate strength
of concrete. Matrix
microcracks start bridge one
another at 75%. Aggregate
microcracks occur just
before failure (90%).
Concrete Properties
1. Uniaxial Stress versus Strain Behavior in
Compression

c
E
c

u
0.45f
c
f
c
f
c
12
6
Concrete Properties
The standard strength test generally uses a cylindrical
sample. It is tested after 28 days to test for strength, f
c
.
The concrete will continue to harden with time and for a
normal Portland cement will increase with time as follows:
Concrete Properties
Compressive Strength, f
c
Normally use 28-day strength for design
strength
Poissons Ratio, v
v ~ 0.15 to 0.20
Usually use v = 0.17

c
E
c

u
0.45f
c
f
c
f
c
Concrete Properties
Modulus of Elasticity, E
c
Corresponds to secant modulus at 0.45
f
c

ACI 318-02 (Sec. 8.5.1):



where w = unit weight (pcf)
90 pcf < w
c
<155 pcf




For normal weight concrete
(w
c
~ 145 pcf)
) ( ' 33 ) (
5 . 1
psi f w psi E
c c
=
) ( ' 000 , 57 ) ( psi f psi E
c c
=
Concrete Properties
In-Class Exercise:
Compute E
c
for f
c
= 4500 psi for normal
weight (145 pcf) concrete using both ACI
equations:
) ( ' 33 ) (
5 . 1
psi f w psi E
c c
=
) ( ' 000 , 57 ) ( psi f psi E
c c
=
Concrete Properties
Concrete strain at max. compressive stress,

o
For typical curves in compression

o
varies between 0.0015-0.003
For normal strength concrete,
o
~ 0.002
E
c

u
0.45f
c
f
c
f
c
Concrete Properties
Maximum useable strain,
u
ACI Code:
u
= 0.003
Used for flexural and axial compression
E
c

u
0.45f
c
f
c
f
c
Concrete Properties
Typical Concrete Stress-Strain Curves in Compression
Concrete Properties
Types of compression failure
There are three modes
of failure.
[a] Under axial
compression concrete
fails in shear.
[b] the separation of the specimen into columnar pieces by
what is known as splitting or columnar fracture.
[c] Combination of shear and splitting failure.
Concrete Properties
2. Tensile Strength
Tensile strength ~ 8% to 15% of f
c

Modulus of Rupture, f
r
For deflection calculations, use:


Test:
2
6
bh
M
I
Mc
f
r
= =
) ( ' 5 . 7 psi f f
c
r
=
ACI Eq. 9-10
P
f
r
M
max
= P/2*a
unreinforced
concrete beam
Concrete Properties
2. Tensile Strength (cont.)
Splitting Tensile Strength, f
ct
Split Cylinder Test

P
Concrete Cylinder
Poissons
Effect
Concrete Properties
2. Tensile Strength (cont.)

) ( ' ) 7 5 (
2
psi f to f
ld
P
f
c ct
ct
=
=
t
(Not given in ACI Code)
Concrete Properties
3. Shrinkage and Creep
Shrinkage: Due to water loss to atmosphere (volume
loss).
Plastic shrinkage occurs while concrete is still wet
(hot day, flat work, etc.)
Drying shrinkage occurs after concrete has set
Most shrinkage occurs in first few months (~80% within
one year).
Cycles of shrinking and swelling may occur as
environment changes.
Reinforcement restrains the development of shrinkage.
Concrete Properties
Fig. 3-21, MacGregor (1997)
Shrinkage of an Unloaded Specimen
* 80% of shrinkage occurs in first year
Concrete Properties
Shrinkage is a function of
W/C ratio (high water content reduces
amount of aggregate which restrains
shrinkage)
Aggregate type & content (modulus of
Elasticity)
Volume/Surface Ratio

Concrete Properties
Shrinkage is a function of
Type of cement (finely ground)
Admixtures
Relative humidity (largest for relative humidity
of 40% or less).
Typical magnitude of strain: (200 to 600) *
10
-6
(200 to 600 microstrain)

Concrete Properties
Creep
Deformations (strains) under sustained loads.
Like shrinkage, creep is not completely
reversible.

P
P
L
oL, elastic
oL, creep
=oL/L
Concrete Properties

Magnitude of creep strain is a function of all
the above that affect shrinkage, plus
magnitude of stress
age at loading
Concrete Properties

Creep strain develops over time
Absorbed water layers tend to become
thinner between gel particles that are
transmitting compressive stresses
Bonds form between gel particles in their
deformed position.
Concrete Properties
Tri-axial Compression
Confined Cylinder
Improved strength and ductility versus
uniaxial compression
Example: spiral reinforced



where,
F
1
= longitudinal stress at failure
F
3
= lateral pressure

3 1
1 . 4 ' o o + =
c
f
F
1
F
1
F
3
Concrete Properties
Tri-axial Compression

Fig. 3-15, MacGregor (1997)
Steel Reinforcement
1. General
Standard
Reinforcing Bar
Markings


Steel Reinforcement
1. General
Most common types for non-prestressed
members:
hot-rolled deformed bars
welded wire fabric
Steel Reinforcement
Areas, Weights, Dimensions
Steel Reinforcement
2. Types
ASTM A615 - Standard Specification for
Deformed and Plain-Billet Steel Bars
Grade 60: f
y
= 60 ksi, #3 to #18
most common in buildings and bridges
Grade 40: f
y
= 40 ksi, #3 to #6
most ductile
Grade 75: f
y
= 75 ksi, #6 to #18
Steel Reinforcement
2. Types

ASTM A616 - Rail-Steel Bars
ASTM A617 - Axle-Steel Bars
ASTM A706 - Low-Alloy-Steel Bars
more ductile GR60 steel
min. length of yield plateau = c
sh
/c
y
= 5
Steel Reinforcement
3. Stress versus Strain
Stress-Strain curve
for various types of
steel reinforcement
bar.
Steel Reinforcement
E
s
= Initial tangent
modulus = 29,000 ksi
(all grades)


Note:
GR40 has a longer
yield plateau
Stress
Strain
0.20
GR 40
GR 60 (less ductile)
E
s
1

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