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Ethernets
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The packets sent by the hosts on the same collision domain may collide with each other.
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2 pairs
No matter whether the device is a hub or a switch, 2 pairs of wires in a UTP cable are always used to connect a host to the device.
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No matter whether full or half-duplex mode is used, 2 pairs of wires in a UTP cable are always used to connect a host to a hub/switch port.
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This is especially true for Gigabit Ethernet because Gigabit Ethernet mostly operate in full-duplex mode.
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The bytes of a multi-byte field are sent from first byte to last byte, with each byte sent in Little Endian bit order.
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Every vendor (e.g., 3COM) is assigned a vendor block code. Therefore, every globally administered address is globally unique.
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Fast Ethernet
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Encoding Method
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When a hub is used to connect all sending hosts (half-duplex mode), Ethernets CSMA/CD MAC algorithm is an effective flow/congestion control (backoff) and retransmission (up to 16 times) method. However, when a switch is used and full-duplex mode is used, each host now has its own collision domain and CSMA/CD no longer works. Frames now may be lost due to buffer overflow inside the switch.
Hosts no longer know this type of collision. Congestion control cannot automatically be performed. Also, retransmission cannot automatically be performed.
If a switch uses half-duplex mode to connect to hosts, although each host has its own collision domain, we can use some methods to ask sending hosts to slow down their sending rates:
Force collisions with incoming frames Make it appear as if the channel is busy
If a switch uses full-duplex mode, the above two methods wont work. We need an explicit flow control for switched full-duplex Ethernet switches.
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Introduced for Fast and Gigabit Ethernets. Introduce special MAC-layer control packets (PAUSE packets) to enable or disable frame transmission. Thus a more generic MAC framework is defined and an entity called (MAC Control) is introduced. MAC Control is responsible for generating, sending, receiving, and performing the PAUSE operation.
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PAUSE Function
Implement a simple stop-start flow control scheme. If a device wants to temporarily inhibit incoming frames, it sends a PAUSE frame to the full-duplex partner. This PAUSE frame contains a parameter indicating the length of time the partner should wait before sending more frames. If the device wants to cancel the timer at its partner which is set up by its previous PAUSE frame, the device can send another PAUSE frame that contains a parameter of zero time.
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The buffer space (above the high water mark and below the low water mark) should be larger than link RTT * link BW. Otherwise, frames may be dropped or link utilization may not be 100%.
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IEEE 802.3x is a linklevel flow control scheme. It uses the buffer occupancy level of an input port to determine whether to inhibit frames from incoming. Unfortunately, this scheme does not work for output-buffered switch. (Why? because there will be no queue in input ports.)
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Switch A P1 P2
P2 P2
The same RJ45 jack can support 10 or 100Mbps and half or full duplex mode, how do you know which setting you should use when you plug your RJ45 into a hub or a switchs port? So, the best setting that you should choose is autonegotiation.
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Because link speed is one of the parameter that needs to negotiate, the auto-negotiation message cannot be transferred at a chosen speed (e.g., 10 or 100 Mbps). Instead, it is transmitted at a predetermined clock rate.
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Encoding Method
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Longwave laser
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When link speed increases from 100 Mbps to 1000 Mbps, for half-duplex CSMA/CD to work well (to be able to detect collision), we can:
Reduce the network size by a factor of 10 to only 20 meter
Not acceptable
Carrier Extension
However, to be able to detect collision, the minimum frame size must be enlarged from 64 bytes to 512 bytes (4096 bits). Carrier extension is introduced to insert padding at the MAC layer so that every transmitted frame is at least 512 bytes.
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Carrier Extension
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Frame Bursting
Although carrier extension solves the collision detection problem, the link utilization can be very low.
If every transmitted frame is a minimumsized frame, because in every transmitted 512 bytes, there are only 64 useful bytes. The effective link utilization is only 64/512 = 12.5%
Frame Bursting
If the source host has many small frames to send, it can send them in a burst after a MAC arbitration. Except for the first frame, other frames sent in a burst need not be carrier-extended. If the first frame is larger than 512 bytes, it need not be carrierextended. The burst can be as long as 8192 bytes.
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First, if there is no carrier extension, when collision happens, the sending host may have sent out many small frames. If the sending host resends all frames that have been sent, two problems may occur:
They may already be removed from the buffer. The receiver may receive duplicate frames.
Second, if there is carrier extension and collision is detected in this period, the sending host knows that only the first frame should be retransmitted. Third, if there is carrier extension and there is no collision detected in this period, the sending host can be assured that no collision will happen in the 12future. 41
Although half-duplex (hub) Gigabit Ethernets MAC performance is academically interesting, commercially they are rarely used.
Under 1000 Mbps high speed, CSMA/CDs performance is bad when the number of participating hosts increases. Why not using full-duplex mode (switch) to get much more bandwidth at slightly increased cost? Since CSMA/CD is totally disabled, Gigabit Ethernet actually no longer is Ethernet. The sending host just pumps its frames into the cable as fast as it can.
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Unlike Manchester encoding, whose baud rate is 200% of the data rate, in 8B/10B, the baud rate is only 125% of the data rate.
Supporting 1000 Mbps is already difficult for some media such as UTP. Asking UTP to support 2000 Mbps baud rate is too much.
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No more 4 consecutive ones or zeros will be generated in a 10-bit code. The imbalance between the number of ones and zeros in a 10-bit code is at most 1.
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1000BASE-X Connectors
One jack is for transmission. The other jack is for reception. To connect two hosts together, you need to cross-over the transmission and reception jacks by yourself.
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