12

The Eukaryotes: Fungi, Algae,

Protozoa, and Helminths
The Fungi

 Eukaryotic
 Aerobic or facultatively anaerobic
 Chemoheterotrophic
 Most are decomposers
 Mycology is the study of fungi
Mycology: The Study of Fungi

Table 12.2
Fungi

Table 12.1
 Molds

 The fungal thallus consists of hyphae; a

mass of hyphae is a mycelium.

Figure 12.2
Yeasts

 Unicellular fungi
 Fission yeasts divide symmetrically
 Budding yeasts divide asymmetrically

Figure 12.3
Dimorphism
 Pathogenic
dimorphic
fungi are
yeastlike at
37°C and
moldlike at
25°C

Figure 12.4
Fungal Life Cycle

Figure 12.7
Fungal Diseases (Mycoses)
 Systemic mycoses: Deep within body
 Subcutaneous mycoses: Beneath the skin
 Cutaneous mycoses: Affect hair, skin, and
nails
 Superficial mycoses: Localized, e.g., hair
shafts
 Opportunistic mycoses: Caused by normal
microbiota or environmental fungi
Asexual Spores
 Sporangiosphore
 Conidiospore
 Arthrospore
 Blastoconidium
 Chlamydospore

Figure 12.1
Conidiospores

Figure 12.5a–c
Sexual Reproduction

 Plasmogamy: Haploid donor cell nucleus

(+) penetrates cytoplasm of recipient cell
(–).
 Karyogamy: + and – nuclei fuse.
 Meiosis:Diploid nucleus produces haploid
nuclei (sexual spores).
Sexual Spores
 Zygospore: Fusion of haploid cells
produces one zygospore.

Figure 12.6
Sexual Spores
 Ascospore: Formed in a sac (ascus).

Figure 12.7
Sexual Spores
 Basidiospore: Formed externally on a
pedestal (basidium).

Figure 12.8
Zygomycota
 Conjugation fungi
 Coenocytic
 Produce sporangiospores and zygospores
 Rhizopus, Mucor (opportunistic, systemic
mycoses)
Zygomycete Life Cycle

Figure 12.6
Ascomycota
 Sac fungi
 Septate
 Produce ascospores and frequently
conidiospores.
 Aspergillus (opportunistic, systemic mycosis)
 Blastomyces dermatitidis, Histoplasma
capsulatum (systemic mycoses)
 Microsporum, Trichophyton (cutaneous
mycoses)
Ascomycete Life Cycle

Figure 12.7
Basidiomycota
 Club fungi
 Septate
 Produce basidiospores and sometimes
conidiospores.
 Cryptococcus neoformans (systematic mycosis)
Basidiomycete Life Cycle

Figure 12.8
Anamorphs
 Teleomorphic fungi
 Produce sexual and asexual spores.
 Anamorphic fungi
 Produce asexual spores only.
 rRNA sequencing places most in Ascomycota; a few are
Basidiomycota.
 Penicillium
 Sporothrix (subcutaneous mycosis)
 Stachybotrys, Coccidioides, Pneumocystis (systemic
mycoses)
 Candida albicans (Cutaneous mycoses)
Economic Effects of Fungi
Lichens
 Mutualistic combination of an alga (or
cyanobacterium) and fungus.
 Alga produces and secretes
carbohydrates; fungus provides holdfast.
Lichens

Figure 12.10
The Algae
 Eukaryotic
 Unicellular, filamentous, or multicellular
(thallic)
 Most are photoautotrophs
Algae

Table 12.1
Algae

Figure 12.11a
Dinoflagellata
 Dinoflagellates
 Cellulose in plasma membrane
 Unicellular
 Chlorophyll a and c, carotene,
xanthins
 Store starch
 Some are symbionts in marine
animals
 Neurotoxins cause paralytic
shellfish poisoning

Figure 12.14
Viruses, Viroids, and Prions

13
Viruses
 Contain DNA or RNA
 Contain a protein coat
 Some are enclosed by an envelope
 Some viruses have spikes
 Most viruses infect only specific types of
cells
in one host
 Host range is determined by specific host
attachment sites and cellular factors
Viruses

Figure 13.1
Helical Viruses

Figure 13.4a–b
Polyhedral Viruses

Figure 13.2a–b
Enveloped Viruses

Figure 13.3
Complex Viruses

Figure 13.5a
Viral Taxonomy
 Family names end in -viridae.
 Genus names end in -virus.
 Viral species: A group of viruses sharing
the same genetic information and
ecological niche (host). Common names
are used for species.
 Subspecies are designated by a number.
Viral Taxonomy
 Herpesviridae
 Herpesvirus
 Retroviridae
 Human herpes virus
 Lentivirus
HHV-1, HHV-2, HHV-3
 Human
immunodeficiency
virus HIV-1, HIV-2
Growing Viruses
 Viruses must
be grown in
living cells.
 Bacteriophages
form plaques
on a lawn of
bacteria.

Figure 13.6
Growing Viruses
 Animal viruses
may be grown in
living animals or
in embryonated
eggs.

Figure 13.7
Growing Viruses

 Animal and plants viruses may be grown

in cell culture.
 Continuous cell lines may be maintained
indefinitely.

Figure 13.8
Virus Identification
 Cytopathic effects
 Serological tests
 Detect antibodies against viruses in a patient.
 Use antibodies to identify viruses in
neutralization tests, viral hemagglutination,
and Western blot.
 Nucleic acids
 RFLPs
 PCR
Virus Identification

Figure 13.9
Multiplication of Bacteriophages (Lytic
Cycle)
 Attachment: Phage attaches by tail fibers
to host cell.
 Penetration: Phage lysozyme opens cell
wall, tail sheath contracts to force tail
core and DNA into cell.
 Biosynthesis: Production of phage DNA
and proteins.
 Maturation: Assembly of phage particles.
 Release: Phage lysozyme breaks cell
wall.
1

Figure 13.11, steps 1–3, 6–7

4

Figure 13.11, steps 4–5, 8

One-Step Growth Curve

Figure 13.10
 Lytic cycle: Phage causes lysis and death
of host cell.
 Lysogenic cycle: Prophage DNA
incorporated in host DNA.
The Lysogenic Cycle

Figure 13.12
Specialized Transduction

Figure 13.13
Multiplication of Animal viruses

 Attachment: Viruses attach to cell membrane.

 Penetration by endocytosis or fusion.
 Uncoating by viral or host enzymes.
 Biosynthesis: Production of nucleic acid and
proteins.
 Maturation: Nucleic acid and capsid proteins
assemble.
 Release by budding (enveloped viruses) or
 Attachment, Penetration, and
Uncoating
 Pinocytosis

Figure 13.14a
Attachment, Penetration, and
Uncoating
 Fusion

Figure 13.14b
Release of an Enveloped Virus by
Budding

Figure 13.20
Multiplication of DNA Virus

Figure 13.15
DNA and RNA Viruses Compared
 DNA: Cellular enzyme transcribes viral
DNA in nucleus.
 DNA, reverse transcriptase: Cellular
enzyme transcribes viral DNA in nucleus;
reverse transcriptase copies mRNA to
make viral DNA.
 RNA, + strand: Viral RNA is a template for
synthesis of RNA polymerase.
DNA and RNA Viruses Compared
 RNA – strand: Viral enzyme copies viral RNA
to make mRNA in cytoplasm.
 RNA, double-stranded: Viral enzyme copies –
strand RNA to make mRNA in cytoplasm.
 RNA, reverse transcriptase: Viral enzyme
copes viral RNA to make DNA in cytoplasm.
Cancer

 Activated oncogenes transform normal

cells into cancerous cells.
 Transformed cells have increased growth,
loss of contact inhibition, tumor specific
transplant and T antigens.
 The genetic material of oncogenic
viruses becomes integrated into the host
cell's DNA.
Oncogenic Viruses
 Oncogenic DNA  Oncogenic RNA viruses
viruses  Retroviridae
 Adenoviridae  Viral RNA is
 Heresviridae transcribed to DNA
 Poxviridae which can integrate
 Papovaviridae into host DNA
 Hepadnaviridae  HTLV 1
 HTLV 2
 Latent viral infections
 Virus remains in asymptomatic
host cell for long periods.
 Cold sores, shingles
 Presistent viral infections
 Disease processes occurs over a
long period; generally is fatal.
 Subacute sclerosing
panencephalitis (measles
virus)

Figure 13.21
Prions
 Infectious proteins

 Inherited and transmissible by ingestion, transplant, and

surgical instruments
 Spongiform encephalopathies: Sheep scrapie, Creutzfeldt-
Jakob disease, Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome,
fatal familial insomnia, mad cow disease
 PrPC: Normal cellular prion protein, on cell surface

 PrPSc: Scrapie protein; accumulates in brain cells forming

plaques

P Animation: Prion
LAY Reproduction
Some Plant Viruses

Table 13.6
Virus Families
 Single-stranded DNA,
nonenveloped viruses
 Parvoviridae
 Human parvovirus
 Fifth disease
 Anemia in
immunocompromised
patients

Table 13.2 (1 of 20)

Double-Stranded DNA,
Nonenveloped Viruses
 Mastadenovirus
 Respiratory
infections in humans
 Tumors in animals

Table 13.2 (2 of 20)

 Double-Stranded DNA,
Nonenveloped Viruses
 Papillomavirus
(human wart virus)
 Polyomavirus
 Cause tumors; some
cause cancer

Table 13.2 (3 of 20)

Double-Stranded DNA, Enveloped
Viruses
 Orthopoxvirus
(vaccinia and
smallpox viruses)
 Molluscipoxvirus
 Smallpox
 Molluscum
contagiosum
 Cowpox

Table 13.2 (4 of 20)

Double-Stranded DNA, Enveloped
Viruses
 Simplexvirus (HHV1 and
HHV 2)
 Varicellavirus (HHV 3)
 Lymphocryptovirus (HHV 4)
 Cytomegalovirus (HHV 5)
 Roseolovirus (HHV 6)
 HHV 7
 Kaposi's sarcoma (HHV 8)
 Some herpesviruses can
remain latent in host cells.
Table 13.2 (5 of 20)
 Double-Stranded DNA, Enveloped
Viruses
 Hepadnavirus
(Hepatitis B virus)
 Use reverse
transcriptase to
produce DNA from
mRNA.

Table 13.2 (6 of 20)

Single-Stranded RNA, + Strand,
Nonenveloped
 Enterovirus
 Enteroviruses include
poliovirus and
coxsackievirus.
 Rhinovirus
 Hepatitis A virus

Table 13.2 (7 of 20)

Single-Stranded RNA, + Strand,
Nonenveloped
 Hepatitis E virus
 Norovirus causes
gastroenteritis.

Table 13.2 (8 of 20)

Single-Stranded RNA, + Strand,
Enveloped
 Alphavirus
 Alphaviruses are
transmitted by
arthropods; include
EEE, WEE.
 Rubivirus (rubella

Table 13.2 (9 of 20)

Single-Stranded RNA, + Strand,
Enveloped
 Arboviruses can
replicate in
arthropods; include
yellow fever,
dengue, SLE, and
West Nile viruses
 Hepatitis C virus

Table 13.2 (10 of 20)

Single-Stranded RNA, + Strand,
Enveloped
 Coronavirus
 Upper respiratory
infections
 SARS

Table 13.2 (11 of 20)

Single-Stranded RNA, – Strand,
One RNA Strand
 Vesiculovirus
 Lyssavirus (rabies
virus)
 Cause numerous
animal diseases

Table 13.2 (12 of 20)

Single-Stranded RNA, – Strand,
One RNA Strand

 Filovirus
 Enveloped, helical
viruses
 Ebola and Marburg
viruses

Table 13.2 (13 of 20)

Single-Stranded RNA, – Strand,
One RNA Strand
 Paramyxovirus
 Morbillivirus
 Paramyxovirus
 Parainfluenza
 Mumps
 Newcastle disease

Table 13.2 (14 of 20)

Single-Stranded RNA, – Strand,
One RNA Strand

 Hepatitis D virus
 Depends on
coinfection with
Hepadnavirus

Table 13.2 (15 of 20)

Single-Stranded RNA, – Strand,
Multiple RNA Strands
 Influenzavirus
(Influenza viruses A
and B)
 Influenza C virus
 Envelope spikes can
agglutinate RBCs.

Table 13.2 (16 of 20)

Crossing the Species Barrier

UN 13.3
Single-Stranded RNA, – Strand,
Multiple RNA Strands

 Bunyavirus (CE virus)

 Hantavirus

Table 13.2 (17 of 20)

Single-Stranded RNA, – Strand,
Multiple RNA Strands
 Arenavirus
 Helical capsids
contain RNA-
containing granules
 Lymphocytic
choriomeningitis
 VEE and Lassa Fever

Table 13.2 (18 of 20)

Single-Stranded RNA, Two RNA
Strands,

 Lentivirus (HIV)
 Oncogenic viruses
 Use reverse
transcriptase to
produce DNA from
viral genome.
 Includes all RNA
tumor viruses

Table 13.2 (19 of 20)

Double-Stranded RNA, Nonenveloped

 Reovirus
(Respiratory Enteric
Orphan)
 Rotavirus
 Mild respiratory infections
and gastroenteritis
 Colorado tick fever

Table 13.2 (20 of 20)