CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Overview

Chapter 2.
Computer Number Systems and Arithmetic

Overview
Binary number system
Representation of positive integer numbers
Binary number arithmetic and logic operations
Representation of signed numbers
Negative integer numbers in binary format and their arithmetic
Representation of real numbers
Real numbers in binary format
Representation of text and control characters
ASCII code, Unicode
References
A. Clements, The principles of computer hardware Chapter 4.
CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Overview
1. Physics Background
1.1 Introduction
A computer is a machine built on electronic devices. The most
important device is Transistor. All operations inside a computer are
performed using transistors; transistors are also used as computer
memories to store information.
Other popular devices include, for example, Capacitor or some Fuselike material, which are used to build computer memories for storing
information.
New devices/material are being invented for building computers.
These devices have a common characteristic they can only
effectively distinguish two different physical states.
CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Physics
1.2 Transistor used as switch

In computers transistors operate in a so-called switching mode.
Collector
Vin
Base
+Vcc
Vcc~ +5 volts
Vout
Emitter
When the input Vin is high (>3 volts), the transistor switches on,
current flows down to the emitter and out to ground. This connects
output to ground and Vout takes ground volts ~ 0 volts. Thus, high
input (logic 1) yields low output (logic 0).
When the input Vin is low, the transistor switches off, i.e. no
current flowing in. This disconnects output from ground and Vout
takes the Vcc volts. Thus, low input (logic 0) yields high output
(logic 1).
1.2 Transistor used as switch Two different physical states

In computers transistors operate in a so-called switching mode.
+Vcc
1
high volt
+Vcc
0
low volt
0 volts
0
low volt
1
high volt
0 volts
When the input Vin is high (>3 volts), the transistor switches on,
current flows down to the emitter and out to ground. This connects
output to ground and Vout takes ground volts ~ 0 volts. Thus, high
input (logic 1) yields low output (logic 0).
When the input Vin is low, the transistor switches off, i.e. no
current flowing in. This disconnects output from ground and Vout
takes the Vcc volts. Thus, low input (logic 0) yields high output
(logic 1).
1.3 Capacitor as computer memory

A capacitor is an electrical device which can be used to store a
charge by application of a voltage. The simplest type of capacitor
consists of two parallel plates with a voltage applied across them. A
capacitor is characterized by its ratio of charge stored to applied
voltage, called the capacitance and measured in Farads. Unlike a
battery, when the voltage is removed, the capacitor discharges.
The voltage V across a capacitor with charge Q and
capacitance C is given by
V=Q/C
Two different physical states:
Charged (1)
Discharged (0)
1.4 CD, DVD as computer memories

Laser is used to etch pits on the media surface to record
information.
A change from pit to land or land to pit indicates a one, while no
change indicates a series of zeros.
Two different physical states:

Change (1)
No change (0)
2. Binary Number System

2.1 Introduction
As humans we are used to count and perform arithmetic using the
Decimal system.
However, in computer systems we have just seen that we have only
two physical states to use to encode information (numbers, texts,
images, audio, video etc.). These two physical states usually
correspond to the low or high state of a voltage, or the off or on state
of an electronic switch, used in the computer circuit. For
convenience, we label these two states as {0, 1}.
This leads to the Binary number system, and its derivatives
Hexadecimal and Octal systems, which form the foundation of
computer arithmetic.
CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Binary System
What we will do in this Chapter

Computer Memory
132, 1023
-8766, -28
3.1415, -0.3369
A, z, %, , ,
Data, texts,
audio, images
video,
10
2.2 Number systems

In the decimal system, we use 10 different values, {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9}, to represent numbers.
Base
Digits
Count
1000 (103)
100 (102)
10 (101)
1 (100)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
An odometer dial
11
In the binary system, we use 2 different values, {0, 1}, to represent

numbers.
Base
128
27
64
26
32
25
16
24
8
23
4
22
2
21
1
20
Digits
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
Count
12
Compare the decimal and binary systems.

Base 1000 (103)
100 (102)
10 (101)
Digits
Base
Digits
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 (100)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
128 (27) 64 (26) 32 (25) 16 (24) 8 (23) 4 (22) 2 (21)

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1 (20)
0
1
A decimal number tells how many (0-9) 1000s, 100s, 10s, 1s

(i.e. powers of 10) there are in the value being represented.
A binary number tells how many (0-1) 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1
(i.e. powers of 2) there are in the value being represented.
Base number changed from 10 to 2.
13
2.3 Representing integer numbers in binary format

To avoid confusion, we may use a subscript 10 or 2 to distinguish
between a decimal number and a binary number, e.g., 12310 is a
decimal number, and 10112 is a binary number.
Method 1:
What is the binary form of decimal number 10710?
Express 10710 as a combination of 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1,
then we will be able to work out the corresponding binary digits.
Since 10710 = 64 + 32 + 8 + 2 + 1
Base
How many (1/0):
128 64
1
32
1
16
0
8
1
4
0
2
1
1
1
So 10710 = 11010112
14
Method 2:
Divide decimal number by 2 and record the remainder
Keeping dividing the quotient obtained until new quotient is 0
Concatenate remainder values in reverse order to get the value
Example: what is the binary value of 4310 ?
43 2 = 21 remainder 1
52=2
remainder 1
22=1
remainder 0
12=0
remainder 1 STOP since quotient = 0
So 4310 = 1010112
How to check if this is correct?
1 + 2 + 8 + 32 = 4310
15
2.4 Binary numbers in computers

In computer systems, a digit in a binary number is known as a bit,
which has a value 0 or 1, which is expressed by using an electronic
switch (e.g. a transistor or a capacitor) in off or on state.
To represent significant amount of information, bits (i.e. electronic
switches) are manipulated in groups. In particular, the term byte is
used to stand for a collection of 8 bits (a collection of 8 switches).
Bytes can be further concatenated into longer units to represent
greater values. For, convenience, in computers binary numbers are
always represented in a fixed-length format, e.g. 8 bits (a byte), 16
bits (2 bytes), 32 bits (4 bytes), or 64 bits (8 bytes).
For example, the binary 1010112 (4310) represented in 8 bits is
00101011
and in 16 bits is
00000000 00101011
16
Always write binary numbers in a required fixed-length format;

every bit must be defined (which tells how to set the electronic
switch used to store the bit on or off).
For example, 8 capacitors used to store a byte (a capacitor
charged for 1, discharged for 0)
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
4310 is stored as 00101011, not 101011 (which did not specify the
states of the top 2 switches).
Given a binary number, the leftmost bit is called the most
significant bit (MSB); the rightmost bit is called the least
significant bit (LSB).
17
2.5 Hexadecimal number system

Unlike the decimal system which uses 10 different values to count,
the hexadecimal system uses 16 different values to count, like this:
Decimal:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
Hexadecimal: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
Hexadecimal numbers look the same as the decimal numbers up to
9, but then there are the letters (A, B, C, D, E, F) in place of the
decimal numbers 10 to 15.
The base numbers in the hex system: 163, 162, 161, 1 (compared
to 103, 102, 101, 1 in the decimal system, and 24, 23, 22, 21, 1
in the binary system).
Hexadecimal numbers are particularly useful in computer studies as

they can be easily derived from binary numbers. They are more
compact than binary numbers and can be more readily committed
to human memory.
18
Want a short-hand notation for the following binary number?

1101001001111010100011111001
Grouping
1101 0010 0111 1010 1000 1111 1001

Looking up table
D
2
7
A
8
F
9
So 11010010011110101000111110012 = $D27A8F9
We use the prefix $ to indicate a hexadecimal number.
Converting a binary number to a hexadecimal number:
Group every four bits in the binary number (append zeros at the
MSB position if needed)
Replace each group by its corresponding hexadecimal value
A byte (8 bits) can be written in 2 hex digits.
Always write binary in groups of 4 bits (1011 0111, not 10110111).
19
A summary of the decimal, binary, hexadecimal and octal systems

for representing decimal 0 15:
Dec
Bin
Hex ($)
Octal
0
0000
0
0
1
0001
1
1
2
0010
2
2
3
0011
3
3
4
0100
4
4
5
0101
5
5
6
0110
6
6
7
0111
7
7
8
1000
8
10
9
1001
9
11
10
1010
A
12
11
1011
B
13
12
1100
C
14
13
1101
D
15
14
1110
E
16
15
1111
F
17
A prefix $ is used for a hex number, e.g. $200.
20
2.6 Converting integers between decimal and hexadecimal

Convert integers from decimal to hexadecimal
Successively divide by 16 until you get to 0; the remainders,
read backwards, are the hex digits.
Example: what is the hexadecimal value of 4310 ?
43 16 = 2
remainder 11 d0= B
2 16 = 0
remainder 2
d1 = 2
Result: d1d0 = $2B
Convert integers from hexadecimal to decimal
Example: $3CE = ( )10?
Note the base numbers for the hexadecimal system are
Base 4096 (163) 256 (162)
16 (161) 1 (160)
So $3CE =
3256 + 1216 + 14
= 97410
21
2.7 Capacity of representation

No. bits
Binary values
No. different values
1
0,1
21
2
00,01,10,11
22
3
000,001,010,011,100,101,110,111
23
An n-bit binary number can represent 2n different values
So the number of different values that can be represented by

a byte (8 bits) is 28 = 256 (0, 1, , 255)
2 bytes is 216 = 65536 (0, 1, , 65535)
4 bytes is 232 = 4294967296 (0, 1, , 4294967295)
22
Summary Binary numbers

A binary number describes a combination of 2s powers to
represent a value (as opposed to a decimal number which describes
a combination of 10s powers to represent the value).
So by expressing a value as a combination of 2s powers, we can

find its binary number representation.
Commonly seen 2s powers include: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256,
512, 1024, 2048, (corresponding to 2 with a power 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, , respectively). How large to go depends on
the size of the value to be represented.
With n digits (bits), we can represent a total of 2n different values.
Hexadecimal numbers provide a convenient, compact expression of

binary numbers and hence are widely used (every 4 bits in a binary
number can be neatly represented by a single hex digit).
23
2.8 Binary arithmetic

Addition: 0 + 0 = 0; 0 + 1 = 1; 1 + 0 = 1; 1 + 1 = 10 (with carry)
Example 1: add two 8-bit integers without carry
0110 1101 ( = $6D = 10910)
+ 0111 1101 ( = $7D = 12510)
1110 1010 ( = $EA = 23410)
Example 2: add two 8-bit integers with carry
1110 1000 ( = $E8 = 23210)
+ 0111 1000 ( = $78 = 12010)
1 0110 0000 ( = $160 = 35210)
Carry
24
Multiplication: 0 0 = 0; 0 1 = 0; 1 0 = 0; 1 1 = 1
The product of two numbers can be calculated using the shifting
and adding algorithm:
x
+
10
13
30
10
130
x
0
1 0
+ 1 0 1
1 0 0 0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1 0
0 1
1 0
0
0 1 0
The above algorithm can be implemented in software, as in early

computers, and in hardware, as in modern, high-speed computers
(which accomplishes a multiplication in a single operation).
Note in the above example: the multiplication of two 4-bit

numbers yields a 8-bit product. Implications?
The result of (byte byte) must be stored at least in a 2-byte unit, or
one will lose accuracy.
25
One of the historys worst software bugs

Ariane Flight 501 destruction on June 4, 1996
working code for the Ariane 4 rocket is reused in the Ariane 5,
causing the conversion of a 64-bit floating-point number to a
16-bit signed integer - an out-of-range data condition
backup computer crashes, followed by a crash of the primary
computer
the rocket disintegrated 40 seconds after launch.
26
2.9 Binary logic operations

A binary bit can also be viewed as a logic (i.e. Boolean) variable,
which takes either of two values:
True 1
False 0
The basic logic operations include AND, OR, NOT (negation),
EOR (exclusive OR).
The characteristic of an operation can be described by using a truth
table, showing all possible inputs and the corresponding outputs.
A, B are two logic variables as input
A
B A AND B A OR B A EOR B NOT A
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
27
Most high-level programming languages provide operators to

perform logic operations, called bitwise logic operations. The
following give typical examples.
Write any 8-bit binary number as
D = d7d6d5d4 d3d2d1d0
where di is the ith bit in the number, equaling 0 or 1 (the actual
value doesnt matter)
Mask operation. Use logic AND operation to force unwanted bits
to zero while leaving the other bits of interest unaffected.
For example, mask out all bits except bit 2 and 3:
D AND $0C = 0000 d3d200
Set operation. Use logic OR to set chosen bits to one while leaving
the other bits unaffected.
For example, set the MSB and LSB in D to 1:
D OR $81 = 1d6d5d4 d3d2d11
28
Summary - Binary arithmetic

Adding two binary integers (similar to adding two decimal
integers), with/without a carry.
A binary digit (bit) can also be viewed as a logic variable equaling
either True or False.
Logic operations for logic variables
AND, OR, NOT, EOR
Each operation can be fully described by using a truth table, which
lists all possible inputs and the corresponding outputs .
Multiplying two binary integers (similar to multiplying two decimal
integers) two single byte multiplication is likely to produce a 2byte long result!
29

Computer Memory
132, 1023
-8766, -28
3.1415, -0.3369
A, z, %, , ,
CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Signed Numbers
30
3. Signed Number Representation and Arithmetic

3.1 Introduction
So far we have discussed the binary representation of integer
numbers assuming that they are all positive - therefore no need to
consider their signs. These numbers have a particular name:
unsigned numbers.
However, any real computer must be able to deal with both positive
and negative numbers. Combined, these are called signed numbers.
In the binary system, several methods have been developed to
represent signed numbers. Typically, these include the sign and
magnitude, biased, and twos complement representations.
Different methods have different capacities, and different
requirements for the hardware and software.
The complementary representation dominates todays computers.
31
3.2 Sign and magnitude representation

With n bits, one way of representing a signed number is to use the
most-significant bit (MSB) to indicate the sign of the number, as
convention, 0 for positive and 1 for negative, and the remaining
bits to represent the magnitude (i.e. value) of the number.
Example: with a byte (8 bits)
+1510 = 0 000 1111 ( = $0F)
1510 = 1 000 1111 ( = $8F)
The value of a number can thus be decided by:
(1)S M
where S is the sign bit (0 for positive and 1 for negative), and M is
the magnitude (e.g. 1510, or 0001111, as above).
The range of representation: with a byte, we can represent numbers
in the range: 1 111 1111 = 12710 to 0 111 1111 = +12710.
With n bits, the range is: (2n11) to +(2n11).
32
Sign and magnitude representation is straightforward, but has some

inconveniences:
There are two zeros:
0000 0000 = +0 and 1000 0000 = 0
so that architectural rule like positive zero equals negative
zero may be required to prevent behavior contrary to
mathematical conventions.
Addition and subtraction need to be implemented separately
two sets of hardware required.
Example: Add two positive 8-bit binary numbers:
0000 1011 + 0000 1110 = 0001 1001
This can be done by using a piece of hardware adder.
However, add one positive number and one negative number:
0000 1011 + 1000 0110 = 0000 1011 0000 0110 = ?
We will need a different piece of hardware subtractor.
33
3.3 Complementary representation

A negative number is represented by the twos complement of the
corresponding positive number.
As a result, subtraction can be implemented using addition, so no
subtraction (hardware or software) is required.
There is nothing magical. Consider two decimal operations:
83
=5
8 + (10 3) = 8 + 7 =15
The results are the same if we discard the leftmost digit (i.e. 1) in
the second result (so 8 3 can be computed using 8 + 7!)
Here, 7 is called the tens complement of 3 in terms of 7+3 = 10. So
subtracting a number can be performed by adding the numbers
complement. No need to perform any more subtractions?
The answer is NO for the decimal system (getting the complement
7 of 3 needs subtraction 103 = 7), but YES for the binary system.
34
3.3.1 Obtaining the twos complement of a binary number

Given a binary number, its complement called twos complement
can be formed very easily in two steps:
1) Invert each bit in the number, i.e. 10, 01
2) Add 1
Example: Find the 8-bit 2s complement for 8910 ?
8910 =
0101 1001
1 010 0110
Invert each bit in 8910:
1
Add 1:
So 2s complement of 8910 =
1010 0111 = $A7
Unlike decimal numbers, no subtraction is needed to obtain the

twos complement.
35
3.3.2 Twos complement arithmetic

Positive numbers are represented in their normal binary forms.
Negative numbers are represented by the twos complements of the
corresponding positive numbers.
Example: In 8 bits, 10210 = 0110 01102, 7810 = 1011 00102
The latter is obtained by
(1) Obtaining binary for the positive 7810 = 0100 11102
(2) Inverting each bit
(3) Adding 1
Subtraction is performed using addition, with the following
procedures:
Replace the negative numbers in the formula by their twos
complements (using the algorithm described above)
Perform addition with the complements
Discard the carry out (if any) from the most significant bit
36
Example: Compute 127 64 using 8-bit 2s complement arithmetic.

Based on the above procedures, the subtraction is performed using
the following addition:
Subtract becomes add
127 + 2s complement of 64
We know
127 = 0111 1111
64 = 1100 0000 (64 in 2s complement representation)
So 127 64
= 127 + 2s complement of 64
= 0111 1111 + 1100 0000
= 1 0011 1111
Discarding the 1 carried out of the MSB, we have the answer:
127 64 = 0011 1111= 63
37
The power of mathematics the impact of the twos complement

representation on the design of CPU (processor) hardware
Logical unit
F0
F1
Function
decoder
AB
AorB
B
Output
Sum
Full
adder
Carry in
Carry out
Only adder is built which is
able to perform both
addition & subtraction
38
Example: Compute 29 57 using 8-bit 2s complement arithmetic.

Based on the above procedures, this is calculated using the
following addition:
29 + 2s complement of 57
Subtract becomes add
We know
29 = 0001 1101
57 = 1100 0111 (57 in 2s complement representation)
So 29 57
= 29 + 2s complement of 57
= 0001 1101 + 1100 0111
= 1110 0100
No carry out from the MSB, we have the answer:
29 57 = 1110 0100 = 28
39
3.3.3 Interpreting numbers in twos complement arithmetic

In Section 2.2 we showed the base number system used to interpret
8-bit unsigned numbers:
Base
Digits
128
64
32
16
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
In contrast, we can use the following base number system to

interpret 8-bit numbers in the twos complement domain
Base
Digits
128
64
32
16
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
In the twos complement domain the base number associated with

the MSB is negative - used to represent negative values.
40
Interpret 8-bit numbers in the twos complement domain
Base
Digits
128
64
32
16
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
Example: Assume two 8-bit numbers produced by 2s complement

arithmetic: 0011 0001, 1011 0001. What decimal value do each
number represent?
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
So 1st number =
32+16+1 = 49
So 2nd number = 128+32+16+1 = 79
So the MSB of a twos complement number determines the sign of
the number: 0 for positive and 1 for negative.
41
3.4 Ranges of integer numbers
The range of values representable by a binary integer number is

determined by two factors:
the length (i.e. how many bytes) of the number
the number being signed or unsigned
Byte (8-bit)
Two bytes integer
Four bytes integer
unsigned signed unsigned signed
unsigned
signed
0
0
0
128
32768
2147483648
255
+127
65535 +32767 4294967295 +2147483647
Some data types in Jave

byte - one byte, char - 2 bytes (Unicode), int - 4 bytes
Some data types in C++
char - one byte (ASCII code), int - 4 bytes
42
3.5 Overflow
Overflow comes about when the result of an operation does not fit
the representation being used.
Example: Positive overflow. In 8-bit 2s complement system:
0111 1000 = 12010
+ 0000 1001 = 910
1000 0001 = 12710 (positive + positive = negative!)
Example: Negative overflow. In 8-bit 2s complement system:
1000 1000 = 12010
+ 1111 0111 = 910
1 0111 1111 = +12710 (discard the carry, neg. + neg. = pos.!)
Both represent an out-of-range condition.
Overflow is a common trap for the unwary, especially in
programming languages like C, C++, various assembly languages,
and machine language, which have no built-in checks for it.
43
3.6 Biased representation

Signed numbers may be converted into unsigned numbers by
adding a positive, constant bias b.
For example, 8 signed numbers
[4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3]
can be converted into 8 unsigned numbers by adding b = +4 to each
of the numbers, giving
[4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3] + 4 = [0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7]
Therefore, instead of storing [4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3], we store [0 1 2
3 4 5 6 7] using the unsigned binary format.
The actual signed value is retrieved by subtracting the bias b from
the stored value. This is often called excess b representation,
because the stored number exceeds the true number by b.
Biased representation is not efficient in terms of computation. It is
used to encode the exponent part in IEEE floating point numbers.
44
Example for biased representation:

4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3
Add 4 to make all numbers positive
0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Saved in computer in normal binary
0, 1, 2, 3
4, 5, 6, 7
Memory
1
Take 4 from the stored number
3 The actual number
45
Summary Signed number representation

Twos complement is used to represent signed integers in all
computers
Negative integers are represented by complements, obtained by
inverting the bits and adding 1
Subtracting an integer is performed by adding the integers
complement
The base number system for interpreting the values of signed
integers, e.g. for 8-bit signed integers:
128
64
32
16
The sign of a signed integer is determined by its MSB

MSB = 0: positive
MSB = 1: negative
Range of representation and the overflow problem
Other two representations: sign and magnitude, biased less
efficient but have also found applications (see discussions later).
46

Computer Memory
132, 1023
-8766, -28
3.1415, -0.3369
A, z, %, , ,
CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Real Numbers
47
4. Real Number Arithmetic

4.1 Introduction
So far we have discussed the binary representation of signed and
unsigned integer numbers. As a computer, it must also be able to
deal with real numbers, which include both integers and fractions.
In computer systems, real numbers may be represented in different

ways, for example, the fixed-point format and the floating-point
format.
Floating-point format is by far the most common and useful on
general purpose computers.
Industrial standard (e.g. IEEE standard) has been introduced for
floating-point arithmetic operations in mini- and microcomputers.
48
4.2 Binary representation of real numbers

Recall: a binary integer tells how many (0-1) 128, 64, 32, 16, 8,
4, 2, 1 (i.e. powers of 2) in the value being represented.
A binary fraction tells how many (0-1) 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, 1/32,
1/64, 1/128, (i.e. negative powers of 2) in the value being
represented.
Example: 22.7510 = 10110.112
An algorithm for finding the binary representation of a fraction:
Successively multiply by 2 and strip the integer part from the result
until you reach 0 or a certain degree of precision; the stripped
integers, read forwards, are the fractional binary digits.
Example: Representing 0.7510 in binary
0.752=1.5
integer part stripped and recorded: 1
0.5 2=1.0
integer part stripped and recorded: 1
0.0 2=0 Stop Result: 0.7510 = 0.112
49
3.1415926535 8979323846 2643383279 5028841971 6939937510 5820974944 5923078164 0628620899 8628034825 3421170679 8214808651 3282306647
0938446095 5058223172 5359408128 4811174502 8410270193 8521105559 6446229489 5493038196 4428810975 6659334461 2847564823 3786783165 2712019091 4564856692 3460348610
4543266482 1339360726 0249141273 7245870066 0631558817 4881520920 9628292540 9171536436 7892590360 0113305305 4882046652 1384146951 9415116094 3305727036 5759591953
0921861173 8193261179 3105118548 0744623799 6274956735 1885752724 8912279381 8301194912 9833673362 4406566430 8602139494 6395224737 1907021798 6094370277 0539217176
2931767523 8467481846 7669405132 0005681271 4526356082 7785771342 7577896091 7363717872 1468440901 2249534301 4654958537 1050792279 6892589235 4201995611 2129021960
8640344181 5981362977 4771309960 5187072113 4999999837 2978049951 0597317328 1609631859 5024459455 3469083026 4252230825 3344685035 2619311881 7101000313 7838752886
5875332083 8142061717 7669147303 5982534904 2875546873 1159562863 8823537875 9375195778 1857780532 1712268066 1300192787 6611195909 2164201989 3809525720 1065485863
2788659361 5338182796 8230301952 0353018529 6899577362 2599413891 2497217752 8347913151 5574857242 4541506959 5082953311 6861727855 8890750983 8175463746 4939319255
0604009277 0167113900 9848824012 8583616035 6370766010 4710181942 9555961989 4676783744 9448255379 7747268471 0404753464 6208046684 2590694912 9331367702 8989152104
7521620569 6602405803 8150193511 2533824300 3558764024 7496473263 9141992726 0426992279 6782354781 6360093417 2164121992 4586315030 2861829745 5570674983 8505494588
5869269956 9092721079 7509302955 3211653449 8720275596 0236480665 4991198818 3479775356 6369807426 5425278625 5181841757 4672890977 7727938000 8164706001 6145249192
1732172147 7235014144 1973568548 1613611573 5255213347 5741849468 4385233239 0739414333 4547762416 8625189835 6948556209 9219222184 2725502542 5688767179 0494601653
4668049886 2723279178 6085784383 8279679766 8145410095 3883786360 9506800642 2512520511 7392984896 0841284886 2694560424 1965285022 2106611863 0674427862 2039194945
0471237137 8696095636 4371917287 4677646575 7396241389 0865832645 9958133904 7802759009 9465764078 9512694683 9835259570 9825822620 5224894077 2671947826 8482601476
9909026401 3639443745 5305068203 4962524517 4939965143 1429809190 6592509372 2169646151 5709858387 4105978859 5977297549 8930161753 9284681382 6868386894 2774155991
8559252459 5395943104 9972524680 8459872736 4469584865 3836736222 6260991246 0805124388 4390451244 1365497627 8079771569 1435997700 1296160894 4169486855 5848406353
4220722258 2848864815 8456028506 0168427394 5226746767 8895252138 5225499546 6672782398 6456596116 3548862305 7745649803 5593634568 1743241125 1507606947 9451096596
0940252288 7971089314 5669136867 2287489405 6010150330 8617928680 9208747609 1782493858 9009714909 6759852613 6554978189 3129784821 6829989487 2265880485 7564014270
4775551323 7964145152 3746234364 5428584447 9526586782 1051141354 7357395231 1342716610 2135969536 2314429524 8493718711 0145765403 5902799344 0374200731 0578539062
1983874478 0847848968 3321445713 8687519435 0643021845 3191048481 0053706146 8067491927 8191197939 9520614196 6342875444 0643745123 7181921799 9839101591 9561814675
1426912397 4894090718 64942319615679452080 9514655022 5231603881 9301420937 6213785595 6638937787 0830390697 9207734672 21825 62599 6615014215 0306803844 7734549202
6054146659 2520149744 2850732518 6660021324 3408819071 0486331734 6496514539 0579626856 1005508106 6587969981 6357473638 4052571459 1028970641 4011097120 6280439039
7595156771 5770042033 7869936007 2305587631 7635942187 3125147120 5329281918 2618612586 7321579198 4148488291 6447060957 5270695722 0917567116 7229109816 9091528017
3506712748 5832228718 3520935396 5725121083 5791513698 8209144421 0067510334 6711031412 6711136990 8658516398 3150197016 5151168517 1437657618 3515565088 4909989859
9823873455 2833163550 7647918535 8932261854 8963213293 3089857064 2046752590 7091548141 6549859461 6371802709 8199430992 4488957571 2828905923 2332609729 9712084433
5732654893 8239119325 9746366730 5836041428 1388303203 8249037589 8524374417 0291327656 1809377344 4030707469 2112019130 2033038019 7621101100 4492932151 6084244485
9637669838 9522868478 3123552658 2131449576 8572624334 4189303968 6426243410 7732269780 2807318915 4411010446 8232527162 0105265227 2111660396 6655730925 4711055785
3763466820 6531098965 2691862056 4769312570 5863566201 8558100729 3606598764 8611791045 3348850346 1136576867 5324944166 8039626579 7877185560 8455296541 2665408530
6143444318 5867697514 5661406800 7002378776 5913440171 2749470420 5622305389 9456131407 1127000407 8547332699 3908145466 4645880797 2708266830 6343285878 5698305235
8089330657 5740679545 7163775254 2021149557 6158140025 0126228594 1302164715 5097925923 0990796547 3761255176 5675135751 7829666454 7791745011 2996148903 0463994713
2962107340 4375189573 5961458901 9389713111 7904297828 5647503203 1986915140 2870808599 0480109412 1472213179 4764777262 2414254854 5403321571 8530614228 8137585043
0633217518 2979866223 7172159160 7716692547 4873898665 4949450114 6540628433 6639379003 9769265672 1463853067 3609657120 9180763832 7166416274 8888007869 2560290228
4721040317 2118608204 1900042296 6171196377 9213375751 1495950156 6049631862 9472654736 4252308177 0367515906 7350235072 8354056704 0386743513 6222247715 8915049530
9844489333 0963408780 7693259939 7805419341 4473774418 4263129860 8099888687 4132604721 5695162396 5864573021 6315981931 9516735381 2974167729 4786724229 2465436680
0980676928 2382806899 6400482435 4037014163 1496589794 0924323789 6907069779 4223625082 2168895738 3798623001 5937764716 5122893578 6015881617 5578297352 3344604281
5126272037 3431465319 7777416031 9906655418 7639792933 4419521541 3418994854 4473456738 3162499341 9131814809 2777710386 3877343177 2075456545 3220777092 1201905166
0962804909 2636019759 8828161332 3166636528 6193266863 3606273567 6303544776 2803504507 7723554710 5859548702 7908143562 4014517180 6246436267 9456127531 8134078330
3362542327 8394497538 2437205835 3114771199 2606381334 6776879695 9703098339 1307710987 0408591337 4641442822 7726346594 7047458784 7787201927 7152807317 6790770715
7213444730 6057007334 9243693113 8350493163 1284042512 1925651798 0694113528 0131470130 4781643788 5185290928 5452011658 3934196562 1349143415 9562586586 5570552690
4965209858 0338507224 2648293972 8584783163 0577775606 8887644624 8246857926 0395352773 4803048029 0058760758 2510474709 1643961362 6760449256 2742042083 2085661190
6254543372 1315359584 50687724602901618766 7952406163 4252257719 5429162991 9306455377 9914037340 4328752628 8896399587 94757 29174 6426357455 2540790914 5135711136
9410911939 3251910760 2082520261 8798531887 7058429725 9167781314 9699009019 2116971737 2784768472 6860849003 3770242429 1651300500 5168323364 3503895170 2989392233
4517220138 1280696501 1784408745 1960121228 5993716231 3017114448 4640903890 6449544400 6198690754 8516026327 5052983491 8740786680 8818338510 2283345085 0486082503
9302133219 7155184306 3545500766 8282949304 1377655279 3975175461 3953984683 3936383047 4611996653 8581538420 5685338621 8672523340 2830871123 2827892125 0771262946
3229563989 8989358211 6745627010 2183564622 0134967151 8819097303 8119800497 3407239610 3685406643 1939509790 1906996395 5245300545 0580685501 9567302292 1913933918
5680344903 9820595510 0226353536 1920419947 4553859381 0234395544 9597783779 0237421617 2711172364 3435439478 2218185286 2408514006 6604433258 8856986705 4315470696
5747458550 3323233421 0730154594 0516553790 6866273337 9958511562 5784322988 2737231989 8757141595 7811196358 3300594087 3068121602 8764962867 4460477464 9159950549
7374256269 0104903778 1986835938 1465741268 0492564879 8556145372 3478673303 9046883834 3634655379 4986419270 5638729317 4872332083 7601123029 9113679386 2708943879
9362016295 1541337142 4892830722 0126901475 4668476535 7616477379 4675200490 7571555278 1965362132 3926406160 1363581559 0742202020 3187277605 2772190055 6148425551
8792530343 5139844253 2234157623 3610642506 3904975008 6562710953 5919465897 5141310348 2276930624 7435363256 9160781547 8181152843 6679570611 0861533150 4452127473
9245449454 2368288606 1340841486
There are quantities which require an infinite

number of digits to represent!
50
3776700961 2071512491 4043027253 8607648236 3414334623 5189757664 5216413767 9690314950 1910857598 4423919862 9164219399 4907236234 6468441173 9403265918 4044378051 3338945257 4239950829 6591228508 5558215725 0310712570 1266830240 2929525220 1187267675 6220415420 5161841634 8475651699 9811614101 0029960783 8690929160 3028840026 9104140792 8862150784 2451670908 7000699282 1206604183 7180653556 7252532567 5328612910 4248776182 5829765157 9598470356 2226293486 0034158722
9805349896 5022629174 8788202734 2092222453 3985626476 6914905562 8425039127 5771028402 7998066365 8254889264 8802545661 0172967026 6407655904 2909945681 5065265305 3718294127 0336931378 5178609040 7086671149 6558343434 7693385781 7113864558 7367812301 4587687126 6034891390 9562009939 3610310291 6161528813 8437909904 2317473363 9480457593 1493140529 7634757481 1935670911 0137751721 0080315590 2485309066 9203767192 2033229094 3346768514 2214477379
3937517034 4366199104 0337511173 5471918550 4644902636 5512816228 8244625759 1633303910 7225383742 1821408835 0865739177 1509682887 4782656995 9957449066 1758344137 5223970968 3408005355 9849175417 3818839994 4697486762 6551658276 5848358845 3142775687 9002909517 0283529716 3445621296 4043523117 6006651012 4120065975 5851276178 5838292041 9748442360 8007193045 7618932349 2292796501 9875187212 7267507981 2554709589 0455635792 1221033346 6974992356
4.3 IEEE standard 754 (1985)

Current and adopted by all general-purpose computers.
Real numbers are represented using fixed-length binary numbers, in
a floating-point format. The value of a floating-point number
V = (1)s 1. f 2eb
Hidden bit
where: s = a sign bit, 0 = positive, 1 = negative

e = exponent in excess b
f = fractional mantissa
The sign-and-magnitude method is used to represent the sign of a
real number (decided by the sign bit s).
The biased method is used to represent the exponent (e is the stored
value, always positive; e-b is the actual value which can become
negative after subtracting b).
A hidden bit (a stolen bit) is implied, which increases the
representation capacity without any hardware cost.
51
Two most popular types:

float : 4 bytes long, s = 1 bit, e = 8 bits, f = 23 bits, b=127
s (1 bit) e (8 bits) f (23 bits)

representing a value V = (1)s 1. f 2e127
with range: 3.4 10+38 ~ 1.4 1045
+1.4 1045 ~ +3.4 10+38
double : 8 bytes long, s = 1 bit, e = 11 bits, f = 52 bits, b=1023

s (1 bit)
e (11 bits)
f (52 bits)
representing a value V = (1)s 1. f 2e1023

with range: 1.7 10+308 ~ 4.9 10324
+4.9 10324 ~ +1.7 10+308
52
Example: Inside a computer memory there is a 4-byte binary

number representing a float variable
$42 03 00 00 (2 hex digits denoting a byte)
What is the value represented by this binary number?
The corresponding binary number is:
0100 0010 0000 0011 0000 0000 0000 0000
The storage format for float is
s (1 bit) e (8 bits) f (23 bits)
So s = 0
e = 100 0010 02 = 13210
f = 000 0011 0000 0000 0000 00002
So the represented value is
V = (1)s 1. f 2eb = (1)01.000 00112 25
= (1 + 1/2-6 + 1/2-7)25 = 32.7510
53
Range of representation (e.g., for float)

Infinity 3.410+38
Too big to
represent overflow
1.41045
Negative
1.41045
Too small to
represent,
treated as zero underflow
3.410+38
Positive
+Infinity
Too big to
represent overflow
Limited-length representation has limited precision.

Use longer units (e.g. double or long double) to reduce the
chances of getting into underflow or overflow, and increase the
representation precision.
NaN (not a number). NaN is typically obtained if divide zero by
zero (0/0). Any arithmetic operations involving a NaN always gives
a NaN answer (e.g. 10/NaN = NaN).
54
Summary Real number representation

Bits after a binary point describe a combination of 1/2, 1/4, 1/8,
1/16, to represent a value (as opposed to the digits after a
decimal point which describe a combination of 1/10, 1/100, 1/1000,
to represent a value).
The IEEE standard formats float, double are used to represent
real numbers in general-purpose computers.
Due to the use of limited bits in these standard formats, many realworld numbers may only be approximately represented inside
computers.
55

Computer Memory
132, 1023
-8766, -28
3.1415, -0.3369
A, z, %, , ,
CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Characters
56
5. Character Codes ASCII and Unicode

Fundamentally, computers just deal with numbers. They store letters
and other characters by assigning a number for each one.
The most popular encoding system for English (most common
characters, numbers and punctuation) is ASCII, standing for
American Standard Code for Information Interchange. ASCII uses a
byte to represent characters; only the least significant 7 bits (0 to
127) are used, so it can represent no more than 128 characters. These
include printable characters and control or action characters.
Plain text files (.txt) created using Notepad, or Microsoft Word and
saved in text only format - with no formatting such as tabs, bold or
underscoring - are in ASCII format.
In C++, char is a byte-sized variable which can be used to store an
ASCII character code.
57
The standard ASCII table
Codes for 128 characters (from 0 to 127), the first 32 being nonprintable, and the remaining 96 being printable.
Each character is represented using a byte. Row numbers represent
the first hex digit and the column numbers represent the second
hex digit. For example, A is represented in hexadecimal $41.
58
ASCII may not be suitable for other languages in the world. Before
Unicode was invented, there were hundreds of different character
encoding systems, for example, the European Union alone requires
several different encodings to cover all its languages.
Characters not standardized data exchange limited
Vladimir
Jelicaai
Bjrn Vestergrd
59
Unicode provides a unique code for every character in the world

Latest version covers more than 110,000 characters
Unicode text encoding examples:
60
The most commonly used encodings are UTF-8 and UTF-16

UTF-8: It uses only one byte to encode English characters (the
same as ASCII codes), and uses up to four bytes to encode the
other characters. UTF-8 is widely used in email systems and on
the Internet.
UTF-16: It uses two bytes to encode the most commonly used
characters, and uses four bytes to encode each of the additional
characters.
Java was created around the time when the Unicode standard had
values defined for a much smaller set of characters. Back then it
was felt that 16-bits would be more than enough to encode all the
characters that would ever be needed. With that in mind Java was
designed to use UTF-16. In fact, the char data type was originally
used to be able to represent a 16-bit Unicode code point.
The important thing to remember is a single char data type can no
longer represent all the Unicode characters.
61

CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Overview

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Chapter 2.

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CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Overview

CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Physics

CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Physics

CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Physics

1.2 Transistor used as switch

1.2 Transistor used as switch Two different physical states

1.3 Capacitor as computer memory

1.4 CD, DVD as computer memories

Two different physical states:

CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Physics

2. Binary Number System

CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Binary System

What we will do in this Chapter

CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Binary System

2.2 Number systems

In the binary system, we use 2 different values, {0, 1}, to represent

CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Binary System

Compare the decimal and binary systems.

128 (27) 64 (26) 32 (25) 16 (24) 8 (23) 4 (22) 2 (21)

A decimal number tells how many (0-9) 1000s, 100s, 10s, 1s

2.3 Representing integer numbers in binary format

2.4 Binary numbers in computers

Always write binary numbers in a required fixed-length format;

2.5 Hexadecimal number system

Hexadecimal numbers are particularly useful in computer studies as

Want a short-hand notation for the following binary number?

1101 0010 0111 1010 1000 1111 1001

A summary of the decimal, binary, hexadecimal and octal systems

2.6 Converting integers between decimal and hexadecimal

2.7 Capacity of representation

So the number of different values that can be represented by

Summary Binary numbers

So by expressing a value as a combination of 2s powers, we can

Hexadecimal numbers provide a convenient, compact expression of

2.8 Binary arithmetic

The above algorithm can be implemented in software, as in early

Note in the above example: the multiplication of two 4-bit

One of the historys worst software bugs

CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Binary System

2.9 Binary logic operations

Most high-level programming languages provide operators to

Summary - Binary arithmetic

CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Binary System

What we will do in this Chapter

CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Signed Numbers

3. Signed Number Representation and Arithmetic

3.2 Sign and magnitude representation

Sign and magnitude representation is straightforward, but has some

3.3 Complementary representation

3.3.1 Obtaining the twos complement of a binary number

1010 0111 = $A7

Unlike decimal numbers, no subtraction is needed to obtain the

3.3.2 Twos complement arithmetic

Example: Compute 127 64 using 8-bit 2s complement arithmetic.

CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Signed Numbers

The power of mathematics the impact of the twos complement

CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Signed Numbers

Example: Compute 29 57 using 8-bit 2s complement arithmetic.

CSC1004 Chapter 2: Computer Number Systems & Arithmetic - Signed Numbers

3.3.3 Interpreting numbers in twos complement arithmetic

In contrast, we can use the following base number system to