Image Classification: Supervised Methods

Lecture 8 Prepared by R. Lathrop 11//99 Updated 3/06 Readings: ERDAS Field Guide 5th Ed. Ch 6:234-260

Where in the World?

Learning objectives
Remote sensing science concepts
Basic concept of supervised classification Major classification algorithms Hard vs Fuzzy Classification.

Math Concepts Skills --Training set selection: Digital polygon vs. seed pixelregion growing --Training aids: plot of training data, statistical measure of separability; --Edit/evaluate signatures -- Applying Classification algorithms

Supervised vs. Unsupervised Approaches

Supervised - image analyst "supervises" the selection of spectral classes that represent patterns or land cover features that the analyst can recognize Prior Decision Unsupervised - statistical "clustering" algorithms used to select spectral classes inherent to the data, more computer-automated Posterior Decision

Supervised
Select Training fields Edit/evaluate signatures Classify image

vs.

Unsupervised
Run clustering algorithm Identify classes Edit/evaluate signatures

Evaluate classification

Evaluate classification

Supervised vs. Unsupervised

Supervised Prior Decision: from Information classes in the Image to Spectral Classes in Feature Space

N I R Red Unsupervised Posterior Decision: from Spectral Classes in Feature Space to Information Classes in the Image

Training
Training: the process of defining criteria by which spectral patterns are recognized Spectral signature: result of training that defines a training sample or cluster parametric - based on statistical parameters that assume a normal distribution (e.g., mean, covariance matrix) nonparametric - not based on statistics but on discrete objects (polygons) in feature space

Supervised Training Set Selection

Objective - selecting a homogenous (unimodal) area for each apparent spectral class Digitize polygons - high degree of user control; often results in overestimate of spectral class variability Seed pixel - region growing technique to reduce with-in class variability; works by analyst setting threshold of acceptable variance, total # of pixels, adjacency criteria (horiz/vert, diagonal)

ERDAS Area of Interest (AOI) tools

Seed pixel or region growing dialog

Region Growing: good for linear features

Spectral Distance = 7

Spectral Distance = 10

Region Growing: good for spectrally heterogeneous features

Spectral Distance = 5

Spectral Distance = 10

Supervised Training Set Selection

Whether using the digitized polygon or seed pixel technique, the analyst should select multiple training sites to identify the many possible spectral classes in each information class of interest

Guided Clustering: hybrid supervised/unsupervised approach

Polygonal areas of known land cover type are delineated as training sites ISODATA unsupervised clustering performed on these training sites Clusters evaluated and then combined into a single training set of spectral signatures

Training Stage
Training set ---> training vector Training vector for each spectral classrepresents a sample in n-dimensional measurement space where n = # of bands
for a given spectral class j
Xj = [ X1 ]
[ X2 ]

X1 = mean DN band 1
X2 = mean DN band 2

Classification Training Aids

Goal: evaluate spectral class separability 1) Graphical plots of training data
- histograms - coincident spectral plots - scatter plots

2) Statistical measures of separability

- divergence - Mahalanobis distance

3) Training Area Classification 4) Quick Alarm Classification

- paralellipiped

Parametric vs. Nonparametric Distance Approaches

Parametric - based on statistical parameters assuming normal distribution of the clusters e.g., mean, std dev., covariance
Nonparametric - not based on "normal" statistics, but on discrete objects and simple spectral distance in feature space

Parametric Assumption: each spectral class exhibits a unimodal normal distribution

Bimodal histogram: Mix of Class 1 & 2 # of pixels

Class 1
0

Class 2
Digital Number 255

Training Aids
Graphical portrayals of training data
good

histogram (check for normality)

bad

Training Aids
Graphical portrayals of training data
coincident spectral mean plots

Training Aids
Scatter plots: each training set sample constitutes an ellipse in feature space Provides 3 pieces of information - location of ellipse: mean vector - shape of ellipse: covariance - orientation of ellipse: slope & sign of covariance Need training vector and covariance matrix

N I R R e f l e c t a n c e

Spectral Feature Space

Grass
Mix: grass/trees Broadleaf Trees Conifer

Impervious Surface & Bare Soil

water Red Reflectance

Examine ellipses for gaps and overlaps. Overlapping ellipses ok within information classes; want to limit between info classes

Training Aids
Are some training sets redundant or overlap too greatly?

Statistical Measures of Separability: expressions of statistical distance that are sensitive to both mean and variance
- divergence - Mahalanobis distance

Training Aids
Training/Test Area classification: look for misclassification between information classes; training areas can be biased, better to use independent test areas Quick alarm classification: on-screen evaluation of all pixels that fall within the training decision region (e.g. parallelipiped)

Classification Decision Process

Decision Rule: mathematical algorithm that, using data contained in the signature, performs the actual sorting of pixels into discrete classes Parametric vs. nonparametric rules

Parallelepiped or box classifier

Decision region defined by the rectangular area defined by the highest and lowest DNs in each band; specify by range (min/max) or std dev. Pro: Takes variance into account but lacks sensitivity to covariance (Con) Pro: Computationally efficient, useful as first pass Pro: Nonparametric Con: Decision regions may overlap; some pixels may remain unclassified

N I R R e f l e c t a n c e

Spectral Feature Parallelepiped or Space Box Classifier

Upper and lower limit of each box set by either range (min/max) or # of standard devs. Note overlap in Red but not NIR band

Red Reflectance

Parallelepipeds have corners

Parallelepiped boundary

NIR reflect ance unir

.
ured Red reflectance

Signature ellipse

Candidate pixel

Adapted from ERDAS Field Guide

Parallelepiped or Box Classifier: problems

Veg 1 NIR reflect ance Unclassified pixels ?? Veg3

Misclassified Veg 2 pixel Overlap region Water 2

Water 1 Red reflectance Soil 1 Soil 2

Soil 3

Adapted from Lillesand & Kiefer, 1994

Minimum distance to means

Compute mean of each desired class and then classify unknown pixels into class with closest mean using simple euclidean distance Con: insensitive to variance & covariance Pro: computationally efficient Pro: all pixels classified, can use thresholding to eliminate pixels far from means

Minimum Distance to Means Classifier

Veg 1 NIR reflect ance Veg 2 Soil 2 Veg3 Soil 3

Water 2
Water 1 Red reflectance

Soil 1

Adapted from Lillesand & Kiefer, 1994

Minimum Distance to Means Classifier: Euclidian Spectral Distance

Y 92, 153

Yd = 85-153

Distance = 111.2
180, 85 Xd = 180 -92 X

Feature Space Classification

Image analyst draws in decision regions directly on the feature space image using AOI tools - often useful for a first-pass broad classification Pixels that fall within a user-defined feature space class is assigned to that class Pro: Good for classes with a non-normal distribution Con: Potential problem with overlap and unclassified pixels

N I R R e f l e c t a n c e

Spectral Feature Space Feature Space Classifier

Analyst draws decision regions in feature space

Red Reflectance

Statistically-based classifiers
Defines a probability density (statistical) surface Each pixel is evaluated for its statistical probability of belonging in each category, assigned to class with maximum probability The probability density function for each spectral class can be completely described by the mean vector and covariance matrix

Parametric Assumption: each spectral class exhibits a unimodal normal distribution

Bimodal histogram: Mix of Class 1 & 2 # of pixels

Class 1
0

Class 2
Digital Number 255

wj
Band 2

wi

Band 1

2d vs. 1d views of class overlap

# of pixels

Digital Number

255

Band 1

Probabilities used in likelihood ratio

wj

# of pixels

wi

p (x | wi){ 0

p (x | wj) 255

Digital Number

N I R R e f l e c t a n c e

Spectral Feature Space Spectral classes as

probability surfaces

Ellipses defined by class mean and covariance; creates likelihood contours around each spectral class;

Red Reflectance

N I R R e f l e c t a n c e

Spectral Space SensitiveFeature to large covariance values

Some classes may have large variance and greatly overlap other spectral classes

Red Reflectance

Mahalonobis Distance Classifier

D = (X-Mc)T (COVc-1)(X-Mc)
D = Mahalanobis distance c = particular class

X = measurement vector of the candidate pixel

Mc = mean vector of class c COVc = covariance matrix T = transposition

COVc-1 = inverse of covariance matrix

Pro: takes the variability of the classes into account with info from COV matrix
Similar to maximum likelihood but without the weighting factors Con: parametric, therefore sensitive to large variances

Maximum likelihood classifier

Pro: potentially the most accurate classifier as it incorporates the most information (mean vector and COV matrix) Con: Parametric procedure that assumes the spectral classes are normally distributed Con: sensitive to large values in the covariance matrix Con: computationally intensive

Bayes Optimal approach

Designed to minimize the average (expected) cost of misclassifying in maximum likelihood approach Uses an apriori (previous probability) term to weight decisions - weights more heavily towards common classes Example: prior probability suggests that 60 of the pixels are forests, therefore the classifier would more heavily weight towards forest in borderline cases

Hybrid classification
Can easily mix various classification algorithms in a multi-step process First pass: some non-parametric rule (feature space or paralellipiped) to handle the most obvious cases, those pixels remaining unclassified or in overlap regions fall to second pass Second pass: some parametric rule to handle the difficult cases; the training data can be derived from unsupervised or supervised techniques

Thresholding
Statistically-based classifiers do poorest near the tails of the training sample data distributions Thresholds can be used to define those pixels that have a higher probability of misclassification; these pixels can be excluded and labeled un-classified or retrained using a clusterbusting type of approach

Thresholding: define those pixels that have a higher probability of misclassification

# of pixels Class 1 Class 2

Threshold

Unclassified Regions

255

Thresholding
Chi square distribution used to help define a onetailed threshold

# of pixels

Threshold: values above will remain unclassified

Chi Square

Hard vs. Fuzzy Classification Rules

Hard - binary either/or situation: a pixel belongs to one & only one class
Fuzzy - soft boundaries, a pixel can have partial membership to more than one class

Hard vs. Fuzzy Classification

Hard Classification

Water

Forested Wetland

Forest

Fuzzy Classification

Adapted from Jensen, 2nd ed. 1996

Hard vs. Fuzzy Classification

Forest
MIR reflect ance

Forested Wetland
Hard decision boundaries

Water
NIR reflectance

Adapted from Jensen, 2nd ed. 1996

Fuzzy Classification: In ERDAS

Fuzzy Classification: in the Supervised Classification option, the analyst can use choose Fuzzy Classification and then choose the number of best classes per pixel. This will create multiple output classification layers, as many as the number of best classes chosen above.

Fuzzy Classification: In ERDAS

Fuzzy Convolution: calculates the total weighted inverse distance of all the classes in a window of pixels and assigns the center pixel the class with the distance summed over the entire set of fuzzy classification layers. This has the effect of creating a context-based classification. Classes with a very small distance value will remain unchanged while classes with higher distance values may change to a neighboring value if there are a sufficient number of neighboring pixels with class values and small corresponding distance values.

Main points of the lecture

Training: --Training set selection: Digital polygon vs. seed pixel-region growing --Training aids: plot of training data, statistical measure of separability; --Edit/evaluate signatures. Classification algorithms:
box classifier, minimum distance to means classifier, feature space classifier, statistically-based classifiers (maximum likelihood classifier, Mahalonobis distance classifier)

Hybrid classification: statistical + Threshold method; Hard vs Fuzzy Classification.

Homework
1 Homework: Unsupervised classification (Hand up your excel file and figure process); 2 Reading Textbook Ch. 9:337-389; 3 Reading Field Guide Ch. 7:226-231, 235253.