Ethical theories

Deontological Principle Teleological Principle Virtues ethics Kohlberg Cognitive Moral Development

Deontology
This theory often called Duty Ethics was formulated by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) ethicals theory tackles duties and rights; consequently, morally focuses on the intentions or the means behind the decision, rather than results to evaluate the decency of the action The Good Will : Kant believed that nothing was good in itself except a good will, and he defined will as the uniquely human ability to act in accordance with rules, laws, or principles regardless of interests or consequences.

 deontological - reason and rational factors

Universal principles of right and wrong are established by reason and rational determination
Through time, experience, and rational thought and action, humans come to know the meaning and application of such concepts as order, freedom, justice, benevolence, and integrity Universal principle : we should not steal things; killing or injuring people is wrong; we should not tell lies, and we should give time and money to charities

Divine Command Theory (DCT)

DCT states that morality is based not upon the consequences of actions or rules, nor upon self-interest or other-interestedness, but rather upon something higher than these mere mundane events of the imperfect human or natural world (Thiroux, 2001:59)

 DCT state that one should obey God and His commandments as relayed to human beings (through voices or any other means) regardless of the consequences simply because God is all-good and has told us that is what we should do. What is good and what is right is what God has stated is good and right( Thiroux, 2001:56-57).

Teleological Principle
commonly referred to as utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill were the pioneers of teleological the ultimate reference is to the comparative amount of benefit produced or expected to be produced right actions are determined by the principle of utility: act always as to maximize the utility of the greatest number the ethical nature of choice is determined by the outcome (or the ends) which matter more than the act required to achieve the end. Given multiple methods to achieve an end, a utilitarian would choose the method that maximizes the utility for the greatest number because it is ones duty to maximize the outcome to the greatest number

Virtues
Virtues mean traits of character to behave oneself in a generally consistent way under similar contexts. Virtues are not born and must be developed and cultivated by ones efforts, education, socialization For Aristotle virtue is an excellence (arte) that can be divided into two types-intellectual and moral-reflecting

 (man)his reason and ability to make moral judgments through language: "It is a characteristic of man that he alone has any sense of good and evil, of just and unjust Aristotle's doctrine of the golden mean virtues occupies the middle ground between two extreme positions can be cultivated in man by habitually practicing virtuous actions

Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlbergs (1976) stage theory, based on cognitive-development theories, moral development occurs in a specific sequence of stages across cultures and assumes that basic moral norms and principles are structures arising through experiences of social interaction.

 values and ethics are cultivated from the interaction between the person and the environment, and that moral judgment is characterized according to how a person reasons His theory explains principles of justice as the principles for resolving conflicting point of view at each moral stage

 Kohlbergs six-step model of moral development stipulated that an individual mature progressively, without oscillating, in hierarchical irreversible sequences. The six moral stages can be explained in three major level : the pre-conventional level (stages 1 and 2), conventional level (stages 3 and 4), and post-conventional level (stages 5 and 6).

 Types of relationships between the self and societys rules and expectations. From this point of view, Level I is a preconventional person, for whom rules and social expectations are something external to the self; Level II is a conventional person, in whom the self is identified with or has internalized the rules and expectations of others, especially those of authorities; and level III is a postconventional person, who has differentiated his self from the rules and expectation of others and defines his values in terms of self-chosen principles. (Kohlberg, 1976:33)

Level One : Pre-conventional

Stage One : Obedience and punishment orientation. 1) Sticking to rules to avoid physical punishment. Obedience for its own sake.
Stage Two : Instrumental purpose and exchange. 2) Following rules only when it is in ones immediate interest. Right is an equal exchange, a fair deal To a pre-conventional person in level one, rules and social expectations are something external to the self (concrete individual perspective). Therefore, at the pre-conventional level, one acts only for ones interests and needs

Level Two : Conventional

Stage Tree : interpersonal accord, conformity, mutual expectations. 3) Stereotypical good behavior. Living up to what is expected by people close to you. Stage four : Social accord and system maintenance. 4) Fulfilling duties and obligations to which you have agreed. Upholding laws except in extreme cases where they conflict with fixed social duties. Contributing to the society. Person in this level identifies the self with the rules and expectations of others (member-of-society perspective). Individual in stage 3 conform to what is expected by people close to them. It means their reasoning encompasses the motive to gain approval from others. Morality is defined by reciprocal role taking. Therefore, others expectations are an important factor that decides right and wrong of an individuals action Individual in stage 4 distinguish societal point of view from interpersonal agreement or motives. They consider fulfilling their obligations and conforming to laws important to keep the institution as a whole.

Level Tree : Post-conventional

Stage five : social contract and individual rights. 5) Being aware that people hold a variety of values; that rules are relative to the group. Upholding rules because they are social contract. Preserving non-relative values and rights regardless of majority opinion. Stage six : Universal ethical principles. 6) Following self-chosen ethical principles. When laws violate these principles, act in accord with principles. (Kohlberg, 1969). A person operating at level three, stage six, the highest degree on Kohlbergs scale, possesses the highest degree of moral maturity, and thus makes moral decisions based on logical reasoning from universal and objective ethical principles. a post-conventional person differentiates the self from the rules and expectations of others and characterizes his or her values in terms of selfchosen principles (prior-to-society perspective). They conform to keep the welfare of all and the protection of all peoples right. They evaluate particular laws or social agreements in terms of their own principles.

Table 7: Kohlbergs Stages of Moral Development Stage Stage 1 : Pleasure/pain orientation Stage 2: Cost/benefit orientation What is Right
Avoiding breaking rules backed by punishment; obedience for its own sake; and avoiding physical damage to persons and property Following rules only when it is in someones immediate interest; acting to meet own interests and needs and letting others do the sme. Righ is whats fair, an equal exchange, a deal, and an agreement Living up whats expected by people close to you or what is generally expected of people in your role. Being good is important and means having good motive, showing concern, keeping mutual relationships such as trust, loyalty, respect. Fulfilling the actual duties to which you have agreed. Laws are to be upheld except in extreme cases of conflict with other fixed social duties. Right is contributing to society, the group, or institution. Being aware that peope hold a variety of values and opinions; most values and rules are relative to ones group, but these relative rules should usually be upheld in the interest of impartiality and because they are the socialcontract. Some nonrelative values and rights (life and liberty) must be upheld in any society regardless of majority opinion. Following self chosen ethical principles. Law or socilagreements are usually valid because they rest on such principles. When laws violate these priniples, one acts in accordance with the principle. Priciples are universal priniples of justice-the equality of human rights and respect for dignity of human beings.

Reason for Doing Right

Avoidance of punishment and the superior power of authorities.

To serve ones own needs or interests I aworld where you have to recognize that other people have their interest too.

Stage 3: Good child orientation

The need to be good person in your own eyes and those of others. Belief in the Golden rule.Desire to maintain rules and authority that support stereotypical good behavior.

Stage 4: Law and order orientation

To keep te institution going as a whole, to avoid the breakdown in the system if everyone did it or the imperative of consciences to met ones defined obligations.

Stage 5: Social contract orientation

A sense of obligation to law because of ones social contract to make and abide by lawss for the welfare of all and for the protection of allpeoples rights. A feeling of contractual commitment, and concern that laws and dutes be based on rational calculation for overall utility.

Stage 6: Ethical principle orientation

The belief as a rational person in the validity of universal moral principles, and a sense of personal commitment to those principles.