Introduction to Geographic Information System (GIS) Dr.

Mohamed Nour Eldien

Table of content
Chapter 1 : Introduction to GIS What is GIS Geographic Information System? MAPS AND MAP ANALYSIS

Chapter 2:Geometric data acquisition techniques Chapter 3:GIS Data Model: Vector Data model Chapter 4:GIS Data Model: Raster Data model Chapter 5: GIS Application Network analysis

What is GIS?
GIS = Geographic Information System(s)
GIS is a collection of computer hardware, software, and geographic data for capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information. Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), 2007

What is GIS?
GIS = Geographic Information System(s)
GIS is a collection of computer hardware, software, and geographic data for capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information. Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), 2007

Definition of GIS (1)

Geographic Information System: An organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographic data, and personnel designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze and display all forms of geographically referenced information.
from Understanding GISThe ARC/INFO Method, ESRI, 1993

GIS

GIS concepts are not new!

London cholera epidemic 1854

Soho

+ Cholera death
Water pump

Kingston Centre for GIS

Spatial information handling 1854

Soho

+ Cholera death
Water pump

Kingston Centre for GIS

Chapter1:What is GIS Geographic Information System?

A geographic information system (GIS) uses computers and software to control the fundamental principle of geographythat location is important in peoples lives. GIS combines layers of information about a place to give you a better understanding of that place. What layers of information you combine depends on your purpose finding the best location for a new store, analyzing environmental damage, viewing similar crimes in a city to detect a pattern, and so on. Why is this layering so important? The power of a GIS over paper maps is your ability to select the information you need to see according to what goal you are trying to achieve. A business person trying to map customers in a particular city will want to see very different information than a water engineer who wants to see the water pipelines for the same city. Both may start with a common mapa street and neighborhood map of the city but the information they add to that map will differ.

Integrate data in various formats from many sources using GIS.

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The Basic Of GIS

The short history of GIS (it goes back to the late 1960's) was founded in attempts in the UK, Canada and US to automate some of the land-management and census activities of government.
Figuring out how to do that, and how to explain what went wrong when they tried, was the start of the science of GIS. It was realized that many map-related concepts that seem so simple to us (scale, a boundary), required a lot of effort to teach to a computer.

What is a GIS?
The name says it all, but we have to understand the implications of the words in the name.

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GIS and Related Software

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GIS Concepts
This section covers the two basic GIS concepts you need to know to effectively use any GIS maps GIS Concept #1: Features have attributes associated with them. Imagine a tree. How would you keep track of and communicate information about this tree to other people who need to know all about it? You might use a database to keep track of what species it is, how old it is, how tall it is, how healthy it is, and any other attributes that are important. This tree is one record in a database. We call each category (i.e. tree height) a field. Now imagine a grove of trees that you need to keep track of attributes for. Because we are now dealing with more than one tree, it becomes relevant where each tree is so we know what information relates to which tree

Layers representing the real world

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We map the location of each tree and identify which attributes belong to which tree. This is the foundation of GIS. A GIS tells us where some is. Computers are synonymous with GIS, and using a computer we can have hundreds of fields (different attributes) for millions of records (trees).

GIS Concept # 2: Information is separated into layers.

We can also have other layers of information in our GIS. Our infor-mation on trees would constitute one layer of information. We could also have a layer with rivers and a layer with soil types. Any information can be represented as a layer A map represents the landscape in an artificial way. Vector layers represent features in one of several ways: Points: A point is good for representing information in which it is necessary to show where a feature is, but its physical shape is not important (i.e. trees in the old growth tree layer). Lines: A line is suitable to represent many real world features (i.e. the rivers in the river layer). Polygons: Don't be intimidated by the name. It is really just a solid multi-sided shape. When you see a polygon, remember that everything inside the boundary has the attributes associated with the record. (i.e. soil types in the soils layer)
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You might hear people talk about coverage, Geodatabase, or shapefile. All these terms are other names for layers of information. With individual layers we can conduct analysis between layers and only display layers of interest How GIS deals with layered data? GIS takes the numbers and words from the rows and columns in databases and spreadsheets and puts them on a map. Placing your data on a map highlights where you have many customers if Combining attributes and Geometry in GIS you own a store, or lots of leaks in your water system if you run a water company. It allows you to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize your data in ways simply not possible in the rows and columns of a spreadsheet. And, with data on a map, you can ask more questions. You can ask Where?, Why?, and How?, all with the location information on hand.

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Geographic Information Systems GIS Concept Keep spatial data and their attributes where you can combine them and ask questions.

ESRI 2004

ESRI 2004

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

2. GIS Functions
Data Input & Management Spatial Attribute
Quality Control & Database Management

Data Manipulation: Geo-processing

Analysis & Modeling

Information Output
Maps, charts, tables, reports

Data Input
Digitize Satellite Imagery Air Photos Digital Elevation Model

Scan

GPS

Tiger/Line

Transformation Transformation

Output
Maps Charts Reports

Triad of Geography
Where
Why? How?

When

What

Where: locations When: time What: things properties/attributes

Methods of representing geographic space

Vector

Raster

 Topology: adjacency relations of objects Attributes: properties, values

Geometry, topology and attributes Geometry: coordinates

Example: Country map of South America Geometry: coordinates of the borders Topology: which countries border which Attributes: names of countries, population, etc.

3. GIS Components
Organized collection of
Hardware Network Software Data People Procedures
Software People Data Network

Procedures
Hardware

Scanner

2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Vector Over Raster

2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Projection Methods Plane, cylinder and cone projections can be: Simple - tangent to the globe at a point, parallel, or meridian, or Secant - passing through the earth (multiple standard lines. The deformation increases with distance from the tangent point or standard lines. Map Digitizing Method of converting information from one format to another using a trace methodology. Traditionally, digitizing has meant the creation of a spatial dataset from a hardcopy source such as a paper map or a plan. On-screen digitizing is the creation of a spatial dataset by tracing over features Displayed on a computer monitor with a mouse. In both cases, the newly created dataset picks up the spatial reference of the source document. The following describe two different types of digitizing methods: 1. Manual digitizing Manual digitizing using a digitizing tablet has been widely used. With this method, the operator manually traces all the lines from his hardcopy map using a pointer device and create an identical digital map on his computer. A line is digitized by collecting a series of points along the line.
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Digitizer

2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

digitizers are the most common device for extracting spatial information from maps and photographs the map, photo, or other document is placed on the flat surface of the digitizing tablet Problems with digitizing maps arise since most maps were not drafted for the purpose of digitizing paper maps are unstable: each time the map is removed from the digitizing table, the reference points must be re-entered when the map is affixed to the table again if the map has stretched or shrunk in the interim, the newly digitized points will be slightly off in their location when compared to previously digitized points errors occur on these maps, and these errors are entered into the GIS database as well the level of error in the GIS database is directly related to the error level of the source maps maps are meant to display information, and do not always accurately record locational information for example, when a railroad, stream and road all go through a narrow mountain pass, the pass may actually be depicted wider than its actual size to allow for the three symbols to be drafted in the pass discrepancies across map sheet boundaries can cause discrepancies in the total GIS database e.g. roads or streams that do not meet exactly when two map sheets are placed next to each other user error causes overshoots, undershoots (gaps) and spikes at intersection of lines diagram user fatigue and boredom for a complete discussion on the manual digitizing process, see Marble et al, 1984 Editing errors from digitizing some errors can be corrected automatically small gaps at line junctions overshoots and sudden spikes in lines error rates depend on the complexity of the map, are high for small scale, complex maps

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Batch Vectorization

2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Typology of human errors in digitizing: (A) undershoots and overshoots; (B) invalid polygons; and (C) sliver polygons

2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Error induced by data cleaning

2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Mismatches of adjacent spatial data sources that require rubber-sheeting

2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

How To Use GIS 1) Mapping Where Things Are Mapping where things are lets you find places that have the features you are looking for and to see where to take action. Find a featurePeople use maps to see where or what an individual feature is. Finding patternsBy looking at the distribution of features on the map instead of just an individual feature, you can see patterns emerge.

2) Mapping Quantities People map quantities, such as where the most and least are, to find places that meet their criteria and take action, or to see the relationships between places. This gives an additional level of information beyond simply mapping the locations of features.

For example, a catalog company selling children's clothes would want to find ZIP Codes not only around their store, but also those ZIP Codes with many young Families with relatively high income.

This map from the Silent Spring Institute of Newport, Massachusetts, shows the number of breast cancer cases in Cape Cod relative to land use. The map is used to analyze whether use of pesticides or other toxic chemicals may have contributed to the number of cases. Or, public health officials might want not only to map physicians but also to map the numbers of physicians per 1,000 people in each census tract to see which areas are Adequatel served and which are not. 3) Mapping Densities While you can see concentrations by simply mapping the locations of features, in areas with many features it may be difficult to see which areas have a higher concentration than others. A density map lets you measure the number of features using a uniform unit, such as acres or square miles, so you can clearly see the distribution. Mapping density is especially useful when mapping areas, such as census tracts or counties, that vary greatly in size. on maps showing the number of people per census tract, the larger tracts might have more people than smaller ones. But some smaller tracts might have more people per square milea higher density.
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4) Finding What's Inside Use GIS to monitor what is happening and to take specific action by mapping what is inside a specific area. For example, a district attorney would monitor drug-related arrests to find out if an arrest is within 1,000 feet of a schoolif so, stiffer penalties apply 5) Mapping Change Map the change in an area to anticipate future conditions, decide on a course of action, or to evaluate the results of an action or policy. 1) By mapping where and how things move over a period of time, you can gain insight into how they behave. For example, a meteorologist might study the paths of hurricanes to predict where and when they might occur in the future. 2) Map change to anticipate future needs. For example, a police chief might study how crime patterns change from month to month to help decide where officers should be assigned. 3) Map conditions before and after an action or event to see the impact. A retail analyst might map the change in store sales before and after a regional ad campaign to see where the advertisements were most effective.

Data in GIS Using Geographic Data A GIS stores information about the world as a collection of themed layers that can be used together. A layer can be anything that contains similar features such as customers, buildings, streets, lakes, or postal codes. This data contains either an explicit geographic reference, such as a latitude and longitude coordinate, or an implicit reference such as an address, postal code, census tract name, forest stand identifier, or road name. To work, a GIS requires explicit references. A GIS can create these explicit references from implicit references by an automated process called "geocoding," or tying something like an address to a specific point on the earth. Why is data important? To create maps using GIS, you need good data. For example, if you are trying to see the locations of your customers, you will use your database of customer addresses to make that map. You need to ensure those addresses are correct for the map to be useful. Data Types and Models Data for a GIS comes in three basic forms, all of which are demonstrated in the map to the right: Vector data. Tabular data. Raster data.

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Basic Data Models (Graphics)

There are two types of GIS Data Models:
(models used for graphic representation of geographic space)

1. Vector 2. Raster
Note: A database structure need seldom be made to suit a data model. But a well prepared data model is vital for a successful GIS analysis.

The diagram below shows how real-world objects can be represented on a computer monitor by x,y coordinates.

Vector Models

The coordinate pairs 1,5 3,5 5,7 8,8 and 11,7 represent a line (road) The coordinate pairs 6,5 7,4 9,5 11,3 8,2 5,3 and 6,5 represent a polygon (lake). The first and last coordinates of the polygon are the same; a polygon always closes.

Raster Models
Raster - from the Greek word meaning "to rake" Quantizes or divides space into discrete packets (cells), each representing a part of the whole Cells are of equal size square, rectangular, hexagon, triangles Loose the ability to represent exact locations (e.g., point represented as single cell) Zero dimensional object rep. with 2D feature Lines represented as a series of connected cells Multiple cells joined at edges or corners, usually with only 1 or 2 neighbors, 1D objects represented in 2D Areas represented as a series of connected cells 2D objects represented in 2D, cells distort area and shape - stairs-stepped appearance

Raster Models-continue
Two general ways of associating attribute data with raster entities 1. store an attribute for every grid cell problem is redundancy in storage 2. link cells to RDBMS Permits more than one attribute to be associated for a single cell Only have to store attributes once Cell value linked to attribute table Essentially many to one - "many cells being linked to one record in separate attribute table"

Generic structure for a grid

Grid extent

Grid cell
Rows

Resolution
Columns

Geographic Representations
CELLS: a representation of geographic data
based on rows and columns (e.g.. continuous
surface data such as elevation or temperature, and categorical representations derived from vector data)

PIXELS: a group of independent points with a

color value but no other associated data (e.g..
scanned documents, orthophotography, satellite images)

Like the vector data model, the raster data model can represent discrete point, line and area features.

A point feature is represented as a value in a single cell, a linear feature as a series of connected cells that portray length, and an area feature as a group of connected cells portraying shape.

Because the raster data model is a regular grid, spatial relationships are implicit. Therefore, explicitly storing spatial relationships is not required as it is for the vector data model.

Vector Models
Features represented in basically the same way as an analog map, permits more precise representation than raster model, permits "empty space, variations of the vector model Spaghetti models Simplest of vector data structures Does not explicitly store spatial relationships (topology), essentially X,Y coordinates, and which should be connected by lines Doesnt really "know" if points and connected lines form a line entity or poly entity Topological models Recognizes the concept of an entity Stores spatial relationship information explicitly associated with each entity, most common in GIS

Feature Geometry

To keep track of many features, each is assigned a unique identification number or tag.

Then, the list of coordinates for each feature is associated with the features tag. The objects you see in a vector theme are actually saved in the theme table

Vector Representation

Vector to Raster

Raster Representation

The mixed pixel problem

Water dominates W W W W W W G G G

Winner takes all W G W W W G G G G

Edges separate W E W E E E G G G

Vector Vs. Raster

Vector Compact data structure - little storage space Topology more easily maintained (lines have direction) Arcs more aesthetically pleasing Data structure more complex Better geographic specificity Raster greater storage needed

Topology difficult

Grids not very aesthetic Data structure more simple Limited geographic specificity (due to resolution)

DATA MODEL OF RASTER AND VECTOR

REAL WORLD
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

GRID RASTER

VECTOR

RASTER DATA MODEL

derive from formulation that real world - it has spatial elements and objects fills those elements real world is represented with uniform cells list of cells is a rectangle cell comprises of triangles, hexagon and higher complexities a cell reports its own true characteristics per units cell does not represent an object an object is represented by a group of cells

Lake
Pond

Reality - Hydrography

Lake Pond

Reality overlaid with a grid

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Resulting raster

0 = No Water Feature 1 = Water Body 2 = River

Creating a Raster

VECTOR DATA MODEL

derived from the formulation of spatial concepts that emphasize on real world objects geometry primitives of vector data model are point, line and polygon objects can be built from these primitives object location determined by represented location point uniqueness of vector data model lies in its management and storage of data geometry primitives spaghetti model topology model

VECTOR CHARACTERISTICS
POINT X

LINE

POLYGON

RASTER TO VECTOR
RIVER CHANGED FROM RASTER TO VECTOR FORMAT

RIVER THAT HAS BEEN VECTORISED ORIGINAL RIVER

PRO AND CONS OF RASTER MODEL

pro raster data is more affordable simple data structure very efficient overlay operation cons topology relationship difficult to implement raster data requires large storage not all world phenomena related directly with raster representation raster data mainly is obtained from satellite images and scanning

PRO AND CONS OF VECTOR MODEL

pro more efficient data storage topological encoding more efferent suitable for most usage and compatible with data good graphic presentation cons overlay operation not efficient complex data structure

A look behind the scenes: Vector GIS data models

Spaghetti model Topological vector model Cardinality (this is gonna hurt!) Break

Raster or Vector? While any feature type can be represented using either model, discrete features, such as customer locations, pole locations or others, and data summarized by area such as postal code areas or lakes, are usually represented using the vector model. Continuous categories, such as soil type, rainfall, or elevation, are represented as either vector or raster.

C. Tabular data Tabular data is information describing a map feature. For example, a map of customer locations may be linked to demographic information about those Customers Tabular data for use in a GIS can be purchased already packaged with spatial data or it can be found in your own organization.

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Databases
The I in GIS GIS are often split into two components
Coordinate information (describes object geometry or spatial information) Attribute information (describes other nonspatial properties associate with it)
Often referred as tabular data as they are presented in tabular form

Databases - cont.

Bolstad, 2005

GIS data components - spatial & non-spatial

Attribute Information Presentation

In GIS, attribute information are typically entered, analyzed, and presented using a database management system (DBMS)

DBMS Functions
DBMS incorporates a special set of software tools to manage the GIS non-spatial tabular data
Efficient data storage Data retrieval Data indexing Data reporting

First PC-based Database Software

Lotus 1-2-3 It combines
Graphics Spread sheet functions Data management

Database software...
Light Duty

Medium Duty

Heavy Duty

(Rational Rose)

Attribute Tables: Database in ArcGIS

Fields/Attributes
Records

Common Features in Attribute Table

Some Facts about Attribute Table

columns : fields/attributes rows : records Automatic Fields:
FID and Shape fields automatically created During Digitizing:
Length of lines Area & Perimeter of Polygons

You can add new fields and values to an existing attribute table Attribute tables are saved in workspace as *.dbf file You can export your new updates in attribute file in many formats

Examples of Selection Based on Attributes

Table queries
Simple selection AND selection OR selection NOT selection

Bolstad, 2005

Linking Tables
The idea of linkages between tables is central to the relational database model In ArcGIS, these are known as joins and links Common values for common items are used to associate records from one table to another
Common Field

Joining Tables

Linking Tables (Cont.)

Right-click the data layer Select Joins and Relates > Join Select the choices as shown in picture. This will join the gageusgs table to the idhucs table, based on the HUC field.

Advance Joining Option in GIS

Selecting the Right Data

As you search for data for your GIS, you will go through a process of making a wish list and investigating data that meets your criteria. Following are the most important issues you will need to consider to determine which data you need.

1- What do you want to do with the data?

Do you want to draw maps or do a certain type of analysis? Do you want to match customers to street addresses or to telephone exchange areas? Do you simply want to draw an accurate street map, or do you want to use the GIS software to develop delivery routes? Consider carefully how you answer these questions because the answers will likely govern your answers to the following questions. Take into account your medium- or long-term goals as well as those you want to accomplish now.

2- What are the specific geographic features you need?

To gain the most understanding from your GIS, determine the level of detail required from your data. For example, do you want all streets or major highways? If so, at what level of generalizationmajor highways at a "local" scale, such as 1:24,000, or at a "national" scale, such as 1:3,000,000. Even for a seemingly simple feature such as streets, you may need to decide how you want them represented (centerlines, double-lined streets, or connected routes).
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3- What attributes of those features do you need? Using streets as an example, depending on your goals you will have to determine whether you need none, some, or all of the following attributes: street name, route number, road class, road surface class, address ranges, traffic volume, and under- or overpass. 4- What is the geographic extent of your area of interest? Data can be acquired for areas as small as a ZIP Code or census block or as large as the entire world. You will need to determine the size of the area for which you need data. 5- What is the level of geography you want to examine within your area of interest? Your area of interest can often be broken down into smaller areas. Within a state, for example, you may want to examine statistics by census tract, block group, ZIP Code, or cable TV area. 6- How current must the data be? For some applications, such as land use planning using remotely sensed imagery or aerial photography, obtaining the latest data available is critical. For other applications, data that was collected a year or two before may be adequate. 7- What GIS software will you be using? The answer to this question may affect the data format you select. 8- When do you need the data? Many "off-the-shelf" data sets can be acquired in a couple of business days, but if you need customized data sets, plan ahead. Orders that require customization may take up to several weeks to prepare and deliver. 9- Will you need periodic data updates and, if so, how frequently? Determine if complete replacements of the data are preferred or if you require transactional updates (changes only).
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Maps and Maps Analysis (Cartography) 1. Maps and Cartography

INTRODUCTION maps are the main source of data for GIS the traditions of cartography are fundamentally important to GIS GIS has roots in the analysis of information on maps, and overcomes many of the limitations of manual analysis This chapter about cartography and its relationship to GIS - how does GIS differ from cartography, particularly automated cartography, which uses computers to make maps? WHAT IS A MAP? Definition according to the International Cartographic Association, a map is: a representation, normally to scale and on a flat medium, of a selection of material or abstract features on, or in relation to, the surface of the Earth Maps show more than the Earth's surface the term "map" is often used in mathematics to convey the notion of transferring information from one form to another, just as cartographers transfer information from the surface of the Earth to a sheet of paper the term "map" is used loosely to refer to any visual display of information, particularly if it is abstract, generalized or schematic Cartographic abstraction production of a map requires: selection of the few features in the real world to include classification of selected features into groups (i.e. bridges, churches, railways) simplification of jagged lines like coastlines exaggeration of features to be included that are to small to show at the scale of the map symbolization to represent the different classes of features chosen

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2. Types of maps in practice we normally think of two types of map: topographic map - a reference tool, showing the outlines of selected natural and man-made features of the Earth often acts as a frame for other information "Topography" refers to the shape of the surface, represented by contours and/or shading, but topographic maps also show roads and other prominent features thematic map - a tool to communicate geographical concepts such as the distribution of population densities, climate, movement of goods, land use etc.

topographic map

thematic map
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Thematic maps in GIS

several types of thematic map are important in GIS: a choropleth map uses reporting zones such as counties or census tracts to show data such as average incomes, percent female, or rates of mortality the boundaries of the zones are established independently of the data, and may be used to report many different sets of data
an area class map shows zones of constant attributes, such as vegetation, soil type, or forest species the boundaries are different for each map as they are determined by the variation of the attribute being mapped, e.g. breaks of soil type may occur independently of breaks of vegetation

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Chloropleth MapGraduated Colors

Easy to see patterns Hard to go from colors to values

Characteristics of maps
maps are often stylized, generalized or abstracted, requiring careful interpretation usually out of date show only a static situation - one slice in time often highly elegant/artistic easy to use to answer certain types of questions: how do I get there from here? what is at this point? difficult or time-consuming to answer other types: what is the area of this lake? what places can I see from this TV tower? what does that thematic map show at the point I'm interested in on this topographic map?

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Scale of a map
All maps are reduction in size of the Earth. The scale is the ratio of distances on the map to the same distance on the ground. It is generally expressed as 1: 100,000, that is 1 cm on the map equals to 100,000 cm on the Earth. Large scale (ratio is a large fraction) shows small areas with many details

Small scale (ratio is a small fraction) shows larger areas with fewer details
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SMALL SCALE

90

LARGE SCALE

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Cartography & Digitizing Basic Concepts of Cartography 1) Map as Model: The Abstraction of Reality Models are simplifications - not miniature versions of the reality. Maps are a type of geographic model. Maps are abstraction from reality. The Importance of Maps To record and store information To analyze locational distributions and spatial patterns To present information and communicate findings Purpose of Cartography Cartography is the art and science of map making. Communication is the traditional objective. Analysis has become an important objective with the development of GIS. 2) Basic Elements of Map Composition A. Map Scale: Map scale defines the amount of reduction of reality. Scale defines the precision of the location and the level of detail Be care when using small scale maps as input and then enlarging It is always better to reduce a map after analysis than to enlarge it for analysis.

Scale is expressed in three primary ways: Verbal Scale Representative fraction (RF) 3. Graphic scale (bar)
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1. Verbal Scale Map scale is expressed as ordinary text words ex: 1 centimeter equals (represents) 1 meter . 2. Representative fraction (RF) Map scale is expressed as a ratio in the same units. ex: 1:2,000 means that one inch (or one meter) on the map represents 2,000 inches (or meters) on the ground. 3. Graphic Bar The graphic bar places visual measure of ground distances on the map. Used on printed maps (output of GIS) to aid in communicating the scale. Most software can automatically generate a graphic scale. Ex:

Remains accurate after mechanical enlargement of map, printed ratio or printed scale will be wrong after "zooming" the page on the copy machine. Map Scale: Small vs. Large Small scale refers to the RF ratio. A 1:250,000 scale is small compared to a 1:2,000.The ratio is small and the amount of reduction is large, producing a map of a large area. Large scale means less reduction and a map covering a small area.

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B. Legend Legend 1. The reference area on a map that lists the colors, symbols, line patterns, . Donut ! shadings and other annotation used on the map, and their meanings. Railroad The legend often includes the map's title, scale, origin, orientation Street and other information. RGB Composite 2. The symbol key on a map used to describe a map's symbols and how Red: Band_1 they are interpreted. Green: Band_2 C. Direction Blue: Band_3 The question of what is north can be an issue on some maps. On the earth, true north (the direction to the North Pole) differs from magnetic north, and the magnetic north pole moves due to changing geophysical conditions of the earth's crust and core. Many reference maps indicate both. Most maps we compose are oriented to true north, even though compass readings in the field are angled to the magnetic pole. Adjustments for these compass deviations are made routinely. D. Sources of information and how processed Unless it is absolutely clear from the context in which a map appears, readers will need to know about the sources from which the map was derived. Often the age, accuracy, and reliability of sources is critical to the interpretation of a map and should be noted.

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E. Title The title of a map is usually one of its most essential features. As such, it should receive very careful attention so as to match the needs of the theme and audience. The content of the title should also be measured against other lettering applied to the map, for example in the legend or annotations

F. Projection The projection used to create a map influences the representation of area, distance, direction, and shape. It should be noted when these characteristics are of prime importance to the interpretation of the map. G. Cartographer The authority lying behind the composition of a map can be of prime importance in some situations. Most maps note the name, initials, or corporate identity of the cartographer(s).
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H. Date of production The meaning and value of some maps--such as those relating to current affairs or weather--are time sensitive. The reader must know when they were produced to estimate whether to trust them or not. An out-of- date road atlas or city map can cause tremendous frustration. Other maps are less sensitive to the passage of time, but the date of production can still be important if, for example, better information becomes available in the period after publication. I. Neatlines Neatlines or clipping lines are used to frame a map and to indicate exactly where the area of a map begins and ends. The outer neatline of a map--its border-helps to frame the entire map composition to draw the reader's attention to the various elements of information. Neatlines are also used to "clip" the area of the body of the map and of locator, and inset maps. J. Locator maps Some maps portray areas whose locations may be unfamiliar to readers. In such cases, the cartographer adds a "helper" or locator map that places the body of the map within a larger geographical context with which the reader can be expected to be familiar. k. Inset maps Sometimes observations and data are so densely clustered in small sections of a larger map that the cartographer must provide the reader with additional closeup, "zoomed-in" maps of these smaller areas. Otherwise the data will obscure 96 itself. These close-up detailed maps are called insets.