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Hardware
Categories of Computer Systems
3
Microcomputer Systems
Usually called a personal computer or PC
Computing power now exceeds that of the
mainframes of previous generations
Relatively inexpensive
Are the networked professional workstations used by
business processions
Versions include hand-held, notebook, laptop, tablet,
portable, desktop, and floor-standing
4
Microcomputer Uses
Workstations
Supports have mathematical computer and
graphics display demands
CAD, investment and portfolio analysis
Network Servers
More powerful than workstations
6
Information Appliances
Hand-held microcomputer devices
Known as personal digital assistants (PDAs)
Web-enabled PDAs use touch screens, handwriting
recognition, or keypads
Mobile workers use to access email or the Web,
exchange data with desktop PCs or servers
Latest entrant is the BlackBerry
PDAs include
Video-game consoles
8
Mainframe Computer Systems
Large, fast, powerful computer systems
Large primary storage capacity
9
Supercomputer Systems
Extremely powerful systems designed for…
Scientific, engineering, and business applications
Markets include…
Government research agencies
Large universities
Major corporations
10
Computer System Concept
11
Computer System Concept
A system of hardware devices organized by
function
Input
Current computers
Nanoseconds (billionth of a second)
15
Peripherals
Peripheral is a generic name for all input, output,
and secondary storage devices
Parts of the computer system, but not the CPU
Online devices
Separate from the CPU, but electronically
connected to and controlled by it
Offline devices
Separate from and not under the control of the
CPU
16
Peripherals Advice
17
Input Technologies
Keyboard - Still most widely used input device
Graphical User Interface (GUI) - Icons, menus, windows,
buttons, bars; Selected with pointing devices
Electronic Mouse - Most popular pointing device; Pressing
mouse buttons initiates activity represented by the icon
selected
Trackball - Stationary device, similar to mouse; Roller ball
moves cursor on screen
Pointing Stick - Small eraser-head device
embedded in keyboard; Cursor moves in the direction of
the pressure placed on the stick
18
Input Technologies
Touchpad
Small, rectangular, touch-sensitive surface
Usually on keyboard
Cursor moves in direction your finger moves
Touch Screen
Use computer by touching screen Screen emits a
grid of infrared beams, sound waves, or electric
current
Grid is broken when screen is touched
19
Pen-Based Computing
20
Speech Recognition Systems
Speech be the future of data entry
Easiest, most natural means of human communication
22
Other Input Technologies
Magnetic Stripe
Reads the magnetic stripe on credit cards
Smart Cards
Microprocessor chip and memory on credit card
Digital Cameras
Allows you to shoot, store, and download photos or full-motion
video with audio into the PC
Images and audio can then be edited or enhanced
24
Storage Tradeoffs
25
Computer Storage Fundamentals
Uses a two-state or binary representation of data
On or Off
26
Bit and Byte
Bit
Short for binary digit
Byte
Group of eight bits, which operate as a single unit
27
Representing Characters in Bytes
28
Using Binary Code to
Calculate
29
Storage Capacity
Measurement
Kilobyte (KB): one thousand bytes
Megabyte (MB): one million bytes
Gigabyte (GB): one billions bytes
Terabyte (TB): one trillion bytes
Petabyte (PB): one quadrillion bytes
30
Direct and Sequential Access
Direct or Random Access
Directly store and retrieve data
Sequential Access
Data is stored and retrieved sequentially
Magnetic tape
31
Semiconductor Memory
32
Types of Semiconductor Memory
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Most widely used primary storage medium
Volatile memory
Read/write memory
34
Magnetic Disks
Used for secondary storage
Fast access and high capacity
Reasonable cost
Secondary storage
Tape reels, cassettes, and cartridges
Used in robotic, automated drive assemblies
Archival and backup storage
Lower-cost storage solution
37
Optical Disks
38
Uses of Optical Disks
Image processing
Long-term storage of historical image files
Publishing medium
Allows fast access to reference materials
39
Software
The Basics
l System software
– manages the computer resources
– handles tasks specific to technology management
and coordinates the interaction of all technology
devices
l Application software
– software used to solve specific business problems
SOFTWARE
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
SYSTEM SOFTWARE OPERATING SYSTEM:
HARDWARE
LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS:
UTILITY PROGRAMS:
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES:
Operating System Software
GUI
the part of the operating system that the user
interacts with that uses icons and mouse to issue
commands and make selections
PROGRAM 1
OPERATING SYSTEM
OPERATING SYSTEM
PROGRAM 1 PROGRAM 2
PROGRAM 3
It
just looks like everything is happening at
once. It really isn’t.
If you have more than one
processor……
Multi Processing
split program among more than one
processors
Computer utilization will be much faster
Requires special software and hardware
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Examples:
Microsoft Word
Microsoft Excel
Internet Explorer
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
FORTRAN Language
COBOL Language
Fourth Generation Languages
Internet Explorer
SAS
SPSS
SAP
FOCUS
Front Page
Word Perfect
Software Tips
1. Make sure your hardware system has the capacity
to handle the software.
2. Make sure you are buying the most recent version.
3. Determine what kind of support is offered.
4. For non-standard software ask for references.
5. Whenever possible buy rather than develop.
6. Find out if the current data and documents are
easily transferable to the new system.
SYSTEMS APPROACH
The systems approach assumes that all businesses comprises of
interdependent parts that can only be understood by reference to the
whole. As such, a business may be analysed in terms of inputs,
processes and outputs.
Reductionism
Reductionism is an approach to building descriptions of systems out of
the descriptions of the subsystems that a system is composed of, and
ignoring the relationships between them.
The Systems thinking
incorporates several principles:
Interdependence of objects and their attributes - independent
elements can never constitute a system
Holism - emergent properties not possible to detect by analysis should
be possible to define by a holistic approach
Goal seeking - systemic interaction must result in some goal or final
state
Inputs and Outputs - in a closed system inputs are determined once
and constant; in an open system additional inputs are admitted from the
environment
Transformation of inputs into outputs - this is the process by which
the goals are obtained
Entropy - the amount of disorder or randomness present in any system
Regulation - a method of feedback is necessary for the system to
operate predictably
Hierarchy - complex wholes are made up of smaller subsystems
Differentiation - specialized units perform specialized functions
INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND
BUSINESS STRATEGY
STRATEGIC INFORMATION
SYSTEM
PROCUREMENT
ACCOUNTING INTRANET
PRODUCTION
LOGISTICS
SHIPPING INVENTORY DISTRIBUTORS
SERVICES
FIRM LEVEL STRATEGY & IT
OPERATIONAL OPERATIONAL
LEVEL M ANAGERS
DSS
Decision Input & Sophistication
Routine support output & complexity of
processing & analysis
MIS
Data entry
Input
of accumulated Output
transactions (batched)
On-line Schematic
Terminal
Terminal Terminal
Output
Terminal
Immediate
processing
of each
transaction
Terminal
Terminal
Objectives of TPS
Process data generated by and about
transactions
Maintain a high degree of accuracy
Ensure data and information integrity and
accuracy
Produce timely documents and reports
Increase labour efficiency
Help provide increased and enhanced service
Help build and maintain customer loyalty
Achieve competitive advantage
Simplified Overview of a
Transaction Processing System
Schematic
Data entry & input
Documents
Processing
& reports
Documents:
Internally generated
transactions: • pick list
Database • cheques to vendors
• shipped orders
• purchase orders • receiving notices
Database update: • paycheques
• employee time cards
• customer orders
Externally generated Operational reports:
transactions: • inventory
• finished product
• customer orders • purchase orders inventory status
• vendor invoices • customers • raw materials; packing
materials; spare parts;
• customer payments • suppliers inventory status
Data Processing Activities
Common to TPSs
A transaction processing cycle
Data collection
Data editing
Data correction
Data manipulation
Data storage
Document production
Schematic
Original data
Data
collection
Data
edit
Data
Data manipulation
correction
Data
storage
Document
production
Source Data Automation
Source data automation
The process of capturing data at its source with
minimal manual effort
Data are entered directly into the computer
Point-of-Sale Transaction
Processing System
Customer’s
receipt Management Exception
Inventory information report
database system
UPC and
Point-of-sale quantity
UPC transaction
Scanner
Quantity, processing
Date, system Item, quantity,
time date, time, price
Item
database
Control and Management
Issues
Business resumption planning
The process of anticipating and providing for disasters.
Disaster recovery
The implementation of the business resumption plan.
Transaction processing system audit
An examination of the TPS in an attempt to answer three
basic questions
Does the system meet the business need?
What procedures and controls have been established?
Are the procedures and controls being properly used?
Traditional TPS –
Order Processing
Order processing
Processing an order from entry to delivery,
including traditional accounting transactions
Schematic
Invoice
Customer
Products Customer order in person or via
mail, phone, EDI, internet
Orders
Planned
Finished Shipment shipments
product Routing
planning
inventory
Pick list Planned
shipments
Shipment & routes
execution
Invoicing
Order Processing Support
Systems - Sales Configuration
Sales configuration
Ensures that products and services ordered are
sufficient to accomplish customer’s objectives and will
work well together
Order Processing Support
Systems - Shipment Planning
Shipment planning
A system that determines which open orders will be
filled and from which location they will be shipped
E.g., (from Figure 8.9)
Customer interaction
A system that monitors and tracks each customer
interaction with the company
Customer
Customer
interaction
system
Market Product
research development
Sales Quality
control
Marketing
Order Processing Support Systems
- Routing and Scheduling
Routing
A system that determines the best way to get goods
and products from one location to another
Scheduling
A system that determines the best time to deliver
goods and services
Purchasing System
Schematic
Raw materials
Packing materials
Spare parts
Inventory control
Inventory control
Purchase status report
order
request Purchase order
Employees
processing
Purchase
order
Purchase
order
Material
Receiving Supplier
Receiving Invoice
notice
Accounts Cheque
payable
Purchasing System
Inventory control
Maintains stock of items such as raw materials, packing
materials, spare parts, and supplies
Purchase order (P.O.) processing
A system that helps purchasing department complete
transactions quickly and efficiently
Receiving
A system that creates a record of expected and actual
receipts
Reconciles purchase orders with what is actually
received
Accounts payable
A system that increases an organization’s control over
purchasing, improves cash flow
increases profitability, and provides more effective
management of current liabilities
Accounting System
Accounting systems
Consist of…
Budget
Accounts receivable
Accounts payable
Payroll
Asset management
General ledger
Financial Systems
Schematic
Asset
Customer
management
Cost of assets
Payments
Accounts Accounts
receivable payable
Paycheques Expense
Time transactions
cards
Customer Budget
Financial Systems -
Accounts Receivable
Accounts receivable
A system that manages the cash flow of the company
by keeping track of the money owed the company on
charges for goods sold and services performed
Financial Systems –
Accounts Receivable
Accounts receivable aging report
Tells managers what bills are overdue, either
customer by customer or in a summary format
Financial Systems - Payroll
Payroll…
Generates payroll checks and stubs, as well as W-2
statements at the end of the year for tax purposes
Financial Systems - Payroll
Payroll journal
Helps managers monitor total payroll costs for an
organization and the impact of those costs on cash
flow
Financial Systems -
Asset Management
Assetmanagement transaction processing
system
A system that controls investments in capital
equipment and manages depreciation for maximum
tax benefits
Financial Systems - General Ledger
Enterprise Resource Planning
(ERP)
ERP
Real-time monitoring of business functions
Advantages
Eliminate costly, inflexible legacy systems
Provide improved work processes
Provide access to data for operational decision making
Upgrading technology infrastrucutre
Disadvantages
Time consuming, difficult, expensive to implement
Make radical changes in how a company operates
Lack of vendor responsiveness in light of high demand
ERP Examples
Application
servers
Client
desktop
computers
DSS
Computer-Based Decision
Support
Purpose of a DSS
Improve decision making ability of managers (and
operating personnel) by allowing more or better
decisions within constraints of cognitive, time,
economic limits)
Increase productivity of decision makers
Computer-Based Decision
Support
Supplement one or more of a decision maker’s
abilities. For example:
knowledge collection (what is?)
formulation (of potential plans for analysis or action)
analysis (what if, what about, what follows) knowledge
derivation
problem recognition (finding overall or subproblems)
Facilitate one or more of the decision-making phases
intelligence (e.g., provide relevant information)
design (e.g., identify or analyze alternatives)
choice (e.g., advice about which alternative to choose)
Computer-Based Decision
Support
Facilitate problem solving flows
identify problems
problem reduction
problem solving
combine problem solutions
Aid
decision maker in addressing unstructured or
semi-structured decisions
Computer-Based Decision
Support
Enhance a decision maker’s knowledge
management competence, supplementing human
KM skills with computer-based KM capabilities
DSSs in historical perspective
Another way to begin to appreciate DSS
characteristics is to compare/contrast them with traits
of other kinds of business computing systems
Each serves a different purpose in managing an
organization’s knowledge resources
Computer-Based Decision
Support
decision support limited by
predefined reports
periodic reports
descriptive knowledge only
relevant information in MIS reports incomplete, hard to
dig out, unfocused, difficult to grasp, in need of
processing, unavailable when needed
Decision support systems
some DSS characteristics
includes descriptive and possibly other types of
knowledge
Computer-Based Decision
Support
has ability to acquire/maintain these types
has ability to present knowledge on ad hoc basis in
customized ways (as well as in standard reports)
has ability to select any desired subset of stored
knowledge for presentation or derivation during problem
recognition/solving
can interact directly with decision maker who has
flexibility in choice/sequencing of knowledge
management activities
there are variations with respect to these five characteristics
Computer-Based Decision
Support
DSS notion arose in early 1970s and by 1990s was in
widespread practice
advances spurred by microcomputers, spreadsheet
implementations, management science packages, ad
hoc query interfaces
fostered computer literacy
do-it-yourself creation of DSSs
solvers for complex, quantitative problems
non-procedural, selective, ad hoc retrieval
technological developments lead to continuing
advances
computer networks
artificial intelligence (e.g., expert systems)
direct manipulation and multimedia
Computer-Based Decision
Support
Knowledge driven
Document driven
Web Based
DSS categorized by type of task
Choice (pick one of several alternatives)
Judgment (assessment or prediction)
Ranking
More complex problem (has multiple, often
interrelated, parts)
Diagnosis or “scientific discovery” (hypothesis
generation and testing)
Pattern identification, sense-making
The Components of DSS
External Model
Database
Data Component
Component
Internal
Data Communications
Component
User Interface
Component
Users
DSS Classification Viewed from
three Directions
Decision
Technology
Task
Decision
Maker(s)
E-Customer Relationship Management
Introduction
Process redesign
Develop alternative process scenarios
Develop new process design
Design HR architecture
Select IT platform
Develop overall blueprint and gather feedback
Reconstruction
Develop/install IT solution
Establish process changes
Process monitoring
Performance measurement, including time, quality, cost, IT
performance
Link to continuous improvement
Expert System Definition
An expert system is a computer program that
represents and reasons with knowledge of
some specialist subject with a view to solving
problems or giving advice.
Possess knowledge
Specific domain
Facts
Expertise
Problem domain
Space Technology
Expert System Characteristics
Simulates human reasoning about a problem
domain
Performs reasoning over representations of
human knowledge.
Solves problems by heuristic or approximate
methods.
Explanation Facility
May be simple or elaborate
A simple system may just list the facts that made the
last rule fire
More elaborate systems may:
List all the reasons for and against a particular hypothesis,
List all the hypotheses that may explain the observed
evidence,
Explain all the consequences of a hypothesis,
Give a prognosis of prediction of what will occur if the
hypothesis is true, etc. (see page 9-10)
Key Topics in Expert Systems
Knowledge acquisition
Knowledge representation
Controlling reasoning
Explaining solutions
Introduction to E-
Business
B2C
C2C
E-Commerce models Contd.
Even the most professional programmers feel the temptation to sit down
and produce code at the earliest possible moment. Therein lie many of the
ills of the software engineering industry. Design is a process which involves
communication
creativity
negotiation
agreement
It is a human process, to produce products for human consumption. Too
often the communication, negotiation and agreement aspects are left out.
Object modelling provides a notation which is clear, consistent, and which
can be used to communicate within a software development team, and with
the clients and other third-parties which the team need to deal with.
Objects
We begin at the beginning. The world is made of objects. Just open
your eyes and ears. They are out there. Bank customers, students,
cats, elephants, cars, balls of string, atoms, molecules, tubs of ice
cream, Madonna, stars, bureaucrats, Robin Hood. The world is built
of objects. Objects are built of smaller objects, and so ad infinitum.
Objects combine to make bigger objects. We already live in an
object-oriented world.
The first thing an object analyst must do is to remove the scales
from his or her eyes. Object modelling consists of looking for
objects. Of course, there has to be some boundary. Even sitting at
ones desk one can see more objects than one could reasonably list.
But that is where the beauty of object modelling comes in. It uses
observation.
Objects
Objects can be described by their attributes and operations. Attributes are
the changeable characteristics of an object. Cats have colour, size and
weight. Operations are the things an object does or can have done to it.
Cats can catch mice, eat, miaow, worm up to owners, and be stroked. In our
notation we draw an object such as a cat like this.
The name is shown at the top. The attributes are listed underneath.
The operations are listed below that. Actually, strictly speaking, this
is a class diagram. But we will explain that later.
In an object model, all data is stored as attributes of some object. The
attributes of an object are manipulated by the operations. The only way
of getting at the attributes is through an operation. Attributes may
sometimes be objects in their own right (more of that later).
In an object model, all functionality is defined by operations. Objects
may use each others operations, but the only legal way one object can
manipulate another object is through an operation. An operation may
inform, say "mass of ball", or change the state of an object, say "throw
ball".
Object modelling is about finding objects, their attributes and their
operations, and tying them together in an object model. Nothing more.
Here are some more objects:
Objects
Objects
Do not be constrained to be those dull systems that most software
engineers drag out. Object modelling can be used to design lots of
things. The trick comes in knowing what objects are appropriate,
and what their appropriate attributes and operations are.
Remember entity-relationship models having a notion of entity.
These are really objects. All we are doing in object modelling is
relabelling entity modelling. However, we put the emphasis on
capturing and grouping together both functions and data (operations
and attributes in our terminology). That is the elegant simplicity of
object modelling. object models look remarkably like entity-
relationship models.
We will now look one powerful way of arranging objects - inheritance
hierarchies.
Inheritance
Communication systems
News organizations
Telephony suppliers
Corporations
Component suppliers (boots, food, radios, etc.)
Civilian consulting companies
Financial institutions
Government funds tied up in commercial banks
Healthcare industry
Pharmacies, hospitals, clinics
Drug companies (vaccines, antibiotics)
But Companies Not the Only
Targets
Power grids
For 11 days in Feb 2001, a development server at cal-
ISO electricity exchange was left connected to the
internet and was being quietly hacked
Transportation systems
“A foreign adversary could significantly hinder U.S.
Forces in reaching, say, the Persian gulf or Taiwan
straits by attacking the computers at commercial harbor
facilities used to ship ammunition or the air traffic
control system that would be needed to support and
airlift personnel and supplies” (Bruce Berkowitz)
Water authorities
Why Use Cyber Warfare?
Install
antivirus and antispyware programs on
your computer.
The computers that run the DBMS and all devices that
store database data should reside in locked,
controlled-access facilities.
Human Safeguards–Position Definitions
Metadata layer
The data directory - This is often usually
more detailed than an operational system
data directory. There are dictionaries for the
entire warehouse and sometimes dictionaries
for the data that can be accessed by a
particular reporting and analysis tool.
Data warehouse Contd.