Human comfort indoors The first question that must be answered before any design can begin is how

to define human thermal comfort The best definition of human thermal comfort is a negative one; that is, thermal comfort is the absence of thermal discomfort. A thermally comfortable person feels nothing at all and he/she simply unaware of the thermal environment. This means that the space occupant is neither too warm nor too chilly, is not uncomfortable due to stuffiness or drafts, is not conscious of perspiration (a feeling of body wetness) and is not disturb by strong odors. Ventilation is included in the concept of thermal comfort used here. To achieve this desirable thermal environment, HVAC designers rely on the flexible HVAC system and on the automatic temperature control system of the human body.

Body temperature control Human beings are constant-temperature (warm-blooded) creatures, with a normal deep body temperature of 98.6F (37C). We emphasize that this is an internal temperature, because the external skin temperature can vary from a low of about 40F (4.4C) to a high of about 106F (41.1C). The amount of heat generated by the body depends on the persons activity. The energy is produced by metabolizing (burning) the food we eat and is therefore, referred to as the bodys metabolic rate. The entire process is known as metabolism. A major factor is the need to get rid of the heat we generate as a byproduct of our metabolic systems. The heat we produce varies from about 100W at rest to about 1000W when physically very active. A seated adult male indoors in normal conditions produces about 115W - about 90W of which is sensible heat and the remaining 25W is latent heat.

Thermal comfort and heat transfer To be thermally comfortable one must not feel too hot or too cold, or have any part of the body too hot or too cold. The physiological basis for this is that the amount of heat being produced by the body is in balance with the heat loss, comfortably within the bodys control mechanism.

There are several mechanisms which transfer heat and therefore affect this balance. Heat always flows from hot bodies to cold ones. Individuals may be gaining or losing heat depending on the relative temperatures of their bodies and their surroundings. They may indeed be gaining heat through one mechanism and simultaneously losing it through another.

Rating frequency for overall thermal sensation in the office

The bioclimatic building type has rating mean 4.31 and standard deviation (SD) 0.801 whereas conventional building type rating mean is 4.02 and SD 1.560. The peak distribution curve for conventional building is about exactly at the neutral line whereas that for bioclimatic building is skews to the right or in other word is skew towards the positive categories.

Heat transfer mechanisms: day-time

Heat transfer mechanisms: night-time

On a very hot day in the desert the air and sand are both likely to be hotter than a persons body. The body is therefore heated by the sand on which one stands, by the air and by the Sun. Depending on the exact air and body temperatures, the only cooling mechanism may be by evaporation through respiration and sweating. The figure, illustrates the four heat transfer processes of conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation/condensation. These basic physical processes apply both to humans and buildings, and we shall examine them in turn.

A condition reached when heat gained by a body is equal to heat lost from it. At heat balance, the amount of stored heat does not change and the body temperature remains constant. In humans, heat is exchanged with the environment by radiation, conduction, convection, and evaporation. In addition to external sources of heat, heat is also gained internally by metabolism. During exercise, metabolism increases dramatically and produces much heat. Evaporation of sweat is the major means of losing this heat.

Comfort zone

Heat By definition: Heat is a form of energy that flows from point at one temperature to another point at a lower temperature.

There are two form of heat of concern in planning for comfort : Sensible heat Latent heat

In physics and thermodynamics, heat (symbolized by Q) is any transfer of energy from one body or system to another due to a difference in temperature.

Heat can flow spontaneously from an object with a high temperature to an object with a lower temperature.

Heat balance of the earth

Heat balance

Sensible heat Is an expression of the degree of molecular excitation of a given mass. Such as exposure to radiation, friction between two objects, chemical reaction, or contact with a hotter object.

Sensible heat is potential energy in the form of thermal energy or heat. The thermal body must have a temperature higher than its surroundings. The thermal energy can be transported via conduction, convection, radiation or by a combination thereof. The quantity or magnitude of sensible heat is the product of the body's mass, its specific heat capacity and its temperature above a reference temperature. In many cases the reference temperature is inferred from common knowledge, i.e. "room temperature". Q = mc(T T0) To make the meaning more explicit, it is the heat given to a body, when the body is in such a state that the heat gained by it doesn't convert to latent heat, or the energy supplied is not used up to change the state of the system (as in latent heat).

Sensible heat is that which we can sense or feel; it is detectable through changes in temperature.

Latent heat Heat that exchanges the state of matter from solid to liquid to gas is called latent heat. The equation for latent heat is:

where: Q - is the amount of energy released or absorbed during the change of phase of the substance (in joules), M - is the mass of the substance, L - is the specific latent heat for a particular substance (J kg-1). In other words, specific latent heat is found when energy is divided by mass. Latent heat is the heat taken up or released at a fixed temperature during a change of phase.

In thermo chemistry, latent heat is the amount of energy in the form of heat released or absorbed by a chemical substance during a change of state (i.e. solid, liquid, or gas), or a phase transition. The names describe the direction of heat flow from one phase to the next: solid liquid gas.

Two latent heats (or enthalpies) are typically described: latent heat of fusion (melting), and latent heat of vaporization (boiling).

Thermal transmittance Heats are conducted through the solid parts of the wall or floor or roof. It is radiated across cavities and from the outside surface by wind passing across that surface. The overall rate of transmission is known as the thermal transmittance. It is the heat in watts that will be transferred through 1m2 of the construction when there is a different of 1K between the temperature of the air on the inside and the temperature of the air on the outside. This is called the U-values or air-to-air heat transmittance coefficient. It units are W/m2K1. These coefficients are calculated from the conductivity (k) of the material and the surface resistance of each material. Thermal resistance Building material present resistance to the flow of heat. The resistivity (r) mKW-1 of material in the inverse of the conductivity; i.e. 1/ and resistance, R (m2KW-1) of a given thickness of the material is the product of resistivity and the thickness in meters. The heat transfer by conduction Q is proportional to the temperature difference and the heat flow area, whereas Q is inversely proportional to the distance through which conduction occurs.

Heat transfer Heat transfer through a solid material is referred to as conduction. FOURIERS Law in one-dimension with constant thermal properties is given by Q = -kA dT dx K - is thermal conductivity in units of Btu/[h.ft2/(oF/ft)] which converts to Btu/(h.ft.oF) or SI unit W/(m.K) - is the area which heat flows ft2 or m2 - is evaluated at point x where the rate of heat transfers to be determined

A dT/dx

Steady conduction in plane wall Fouriers law can be integrated in Cartesian coordinates along a path of constant Q. For the case below, if the temperature depends only on x, if there are no heat sources in the material and if the thermal conductivity can be taken as constant (assumption for most building materials).
Q = kA T1 T2 x

k - thermal conductivity Btu/(h.ft.oF) [W/(m.K)] T1 - higher temperature T2 - lower temperature A - area through which conduction occurs x - thickness of material in which conduction occurs

Expressed slightly differently this is

Q = T1 T 2 x / (kA)
The dominator is often called the resistance to heat transfer

R = x kA

(h.F )/Btu(K/W)

By analogy with electric resistance, which serves as the proportionality constant between voltages and current in Ohms law. If one takes the temperature difference in the numerator of eq; Q = T1 T 2 x / (kA)

To be driving force analogous to voltage and heat flow to be analogous to current flow, then R is the thermal analog of electric resistance. The commonly used term R-value is the unit thermal resistance:

Rth = x = AR k

(h.ft2.oF)/Btu [(m2.K)/W]

U-value and R-value

Another convenient measure of thermal conductance is called the unit conductance, or U value. It is just the inverse of the R-value:

U= 1 Rth

reciprocal

r= 1 k

The use of Rth or U to solve a given problem depends on which is more convenient. Resistivity (r) is an alternative index of conduction in materials and is the reciprocal of thermal conductivity.

Examples: 1. The cavity wall of a house has outer and inner brickwork leaves each 125 mm with a 50 mm air gap between them and a 16 mm inside layer of plaster. The relevant values of thermal conductivity, in W/mC, are: brickwork 0.73, plaster 0.46. The standard thermal resistances, in m2C/W, are: outside surface 0.005, inside surface 0.123, air gap 0.18. Calculate the U-value of the existing wall. Calculate the U-value of the wall if the cavity is completely filled with urea formaldehyde (k = 0.026 W/mC).

a)2. A brickwork wall measures 5m x 3.5m in overall length and height. The wall contains one window 1500mm by 800mm and one door 1900mm by 800mm. The U-values, in W/mC, are: brickwork 0.95, window 5.6, and door 3.4. Calculate the average U-value of this wall.

3. A cavity wall is constructed as follows: brickwork outer leaf 105 mm, air gap 25 mm, expanded polystyrene batt 25 mm, aerated concrete block inner leaf 100 mm, plasterboard 10 mm. The relevant values of thermal conductivity, in W/m C, are: brickwork 0.84, polystyrene 0.035, concrete block 0.19, and plasterboard 0.16. The standard thermal resistances in m2 C/W are: outside surface 0.005, inside surface 0.123, air gap 0.18. Calculate the U-value of this wall. Calculate the U-value of the same wall sited in a position of severe exposure for which the outside surface resistance is 0.03 m2 C/W.

4. Compare the U-values obtained in question 2 and 3 with the U-values required in current building regulations. Comment on the suitability of the walls for different purposes.
5. Compare the U-values of single glazed window made up of one sheet of 4 mm glass with a double glazed window made up of two sheets of 4 mm glass, which have 5 mm airspace between them. The thermal conductivity of the glass is 1.022 W/m C. The standard thermal resistances, in m2 C/W, are: outside surface 0.005, inside surface 0.123, airspace 0.11. Comment on the significance of the thermal resistance provided by the glass layers. Comment on the effect of the window frames.

6. A brickwork wall measures 5 m x 2.8 m in overall length and height. The wall contains one window 1400 mm by 800 mm and one door 1900 mm by 750 mm. The U-values, in W/mC, are: brickwork 0.95, window 5.6, and door 3.4. Calculate the average U-value of this wall.

7. A pre-cast wall panel is to have the following cross section: 100 mm of dense concrete, a layer of expanded polystyrene, and 125 mm of lightweight concrete. The values of thermal conductivity, in W/mC are: dense concrete 1.45, expanded polystyrene 0.034, lightweight concrete 0.23. The standard thermal resistances, in m2C/W, are: outside surface 0.005, inside surface 0.123, calculate the minimum thickness of polystyrene required to give the wall panel a U-value of 0.6 W/mC.
8. A domestic pitched roof of tiles on felt sacking, with a plasterboard ceiling, has a U-value of 1.9 W/mC. Calculate the minimum thickness of fiberglass insulation in the roof space required to give the roof a new U-value of 0.6 W/mC. The thermal conductivity of the fiberglass quilting used is 0.04 W/mC. 9. A wall has a U-value of 2.5 W/mC. The thermal resistance of the inside surface layer is 0.123 m2C/W. The inside air temperature is 18C and the outside air temperature is 0C. Calculate the temperature on the inside surface of the wall.

Heat Transfer Through Wall

SOURCES OF HEAT GAIN IN BUILDING

Why we study Heat? To achieve THERMAL COMFORT.

Thermal balance exists when the sum of all heat flow is zero i.e.; When this sum is greater than 0(+), temperature indoor will heat up. When less than 0(-), temperature indoor will cooling down.

SOURCES OF HEAT GAIN IN BUILDING

Qi= internal heat gain, heat from human bodies, lamps, appliances Qs=solar heat gain Qc=conduction heat gain Qv=ventilation heat gain Qe=evaporative cooling Qm=mechanical cooling

SOURCES OF HEAT GAIN IN BUILDING

Approximate energy flows in a house (Sunday at home)

High performance building; envelope must be able control the heat gain in summer and heat loss in winter

Approximate energy flows in an air- conditioned office with summer cooling loads.

Optimal design of the building envelop fabric provide significant reductions in heating and cooling loadswhich in turn allowing downsizing of mechanical equipment

Generic control measures There are eight main methods of control which you can use:
a) Control the heat source Don't only consider this in relation to air temperature. Reduce/increase temperature, humidity, radiant heat load or air movement. Insulate the source of heat or cold. b) Control the environment Replace hot air with cold, or replace cold air with hot, as required. Humidify or dehumidify the air as required. Increase air movement by ventilation or air conditioning. Reduce draught discomfort by directing the ventilation or air movement so that it doesn't blow directly onto the workers.

ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT

ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT

Take Home Exercise

Sepanjang musim panas selama 30 minggu, sebuah rumah teres mengalami kadar purata kehilangan haba fabrik sebanyak 2500 W/hari dan haba ventilasi sebanyak 1300 W/hari. Rumah tersebut diduduki oleh lima orang yang memasak menggunakan dapur gas. Tingkap-tingkapnya pula berukuran 4m2 menghadap ke timur, 6m2 menghadap ke selatan, 8m2 menghadap ke utara dan 4m2 menghadap ke barat. Dengan merujuk nilai perolehan haba musim panas dalam Jadual 1 dan 2 kira kehilangan haba, perolehan haba dan haba yang diperlukan oleh rumah tersebut.

GREEN BUILDING INDEX MS1525 1. WHY BE ENERGY EFFICIENT? 2. ENERGY EFFICIENT ARCHITECTURE 3. BASICS OF MS1525 SECTION 5 BUILDING ENVELOPE 4. COMPLYING WITH MS1525 OTTV & RTTV 5. SAMPLE BUILDING MS1525 CALCULATION

T = 39 25 = 14C

BASICS OF MS1525 SECTION 5 : BUILDING ENVELOPE MS 1525 COMPLIANCE TO BE INCORPORATED IN UBBL REVISION BY KPKT ARCHITECTS & ENGINEERS REQUIRED TO COMPLY TO MS1525 FOR NON-RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS WITH AIR CONDITIONED AREAS LARGER THAN 4000 SM AFTER UBBL AMENDMENT ARCHITECTS / ENGINEERS WILL HAVE TO SUBMIT OTTV & RTTV CALCULATIONS TO COMPLY WITH SECTION 5 OF MS1525 ENGINEERS WILL HAVE TO ENSURE COMPLIANCE WITH SECTION 6,7,8,AND 9 The following information shall be provided by a professional Engineer or Professional Architect: a) a drawing showing the cross-sections of typical parts of the roof construction, giving details of the type and thickness of basic construction materials, insulation and air space; b) the U-value of the roof assembly; c) the OTTV calculation; and d) the RTTV of the roof assembly, if provided with skylights. *The overall thermal transfer value (OTTV) **The roof thermal transfer value (RTTV)

ORIENTATION

ROOF INSULATION IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT DESIGN DECISIONS FOR ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS
The roof plane receives the most Solar Radiation and for the longest period through the day >75% of the Solar Gain by a typical Intermediate Single Storey Terraced House is through its ROOF

ROOF INSULATION IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT DESIGN DECISIONS FOR ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS
The roof plane receives the most Solar Radiation and for the longest period through the day >50% of the Solar Gain by a typical Intermediate Double Storey Terraced House is through its ROOF

ROOF INSULATION IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT DESIGN DECISIONS FOR ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS
The roof plane receives the most Solar Radiation and for the longest period through the day >40% of the Solar Gain by a typical 5 Storey Bock of Flats is through its ROOF

The OTTV of building envelope is given by the formula below:

Aoi is the gross exterior wall area for orientation i; and 0TTVi is the OTTV value for orientation i from equation (2). For a fenestration at a given orientation, the formula is given as below: OTTVi = 15 (1 - WWR)Uw + 6(WWR)Uf + (194 x CF x WWR x SC) Heat Conduction through Walls Heat Conduction through Windows Solar Heat Gain through Windows

OTTV < 50 W/m2

HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH WALLS 15(1-WWR)Uw (Heat Conduct through Wall) 15 x Solar Absorb x Wall Area x U-value of wall = Solar Absorption = Colour of walls Depending on WWR this is typically 0.5% to 5 % of Total OTTV for high rise buildings Black Paint White Paint Aluminium Oxide Paint Red Roof Tiles 0.90 0.99 0.15 0.30 0.09 0.4 0.8

U-VALUE OF WALLS U-value is the heat transmission value of the wall in W/m2K U-values have to be worked out from the Thermal Resistance of the respective materials making up the wall The Overall thermal resistance of the composite wall = Thickness x Conductivity x Resistance of each component totaled up The Higher the Thermal Resistance, the lower the U-Value and therefore the Thermal Transmittance of heat through the walls

HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH WINDOWS 6(WWR)Uf 6 x Window Area x U-value of Window (Heat Conduct through Window) Depending on WWR this is between 10% to 20% of Total OTTV for high rise buildings

WINDOW TYPE Single Glazed Window

Single Glazed Window Low-E Double Glazed Window Double Glazed Window Low-E

TYPICAL U-VALUES (W/m2K) 5.7

4.2 2.6 2.9 1.2

SOLAR HEAT GAIN THROUGH WINDOWS

194 x CF x WWR x SC 194 x Correction Factor (Depend on Orientation) x Window Area x Shading Coefficient (Table 5,6 & 7) Depending on WWR this is between 75% to 85% of Total OTTV. The large constant of 194 already hints that this is a major factor in the OTTV SC can be a major contributor to reducing the Overall OTTV as it can change this component by between 30% to 80%

U-VALUE OF ROOFS
U-value is the heat transmission value of the Roof in W/m2K U-values have to be worked out from the Thermal Resistance of the respective materials making up the Roof The Overall thermal resistance of the composite Roof = Thickness x Conductivity x Resistance of each component totaled up The Higher the Thermal Resistance, the lower the U-Value and therefore the Thermal Transmittance of heat through the Roof

Maximum U-value for roof (W/mK) ROOF WEIGHT GROUP Light (Under 50 kg/m2) Heavy (Above 50 kg/m2) Maximum U-Value (W/m2K) 0.4 0.6

MS 1525 ROOF INSULATION REQUIREMENTS a) a drawing showing the cross-sections of typical parts of the roof construction, giving details of the type and thickness of basic construction materials, insulation and air space;

b) the U-value of the roof assembly; Concrete tiled roofs (Light weight) with NO INSULATION will have a U-value of 0.7 w/m2K With 50mm fiberglass, the U-value will be about 0.35 w/m2K 100mm Concrete roof slab (Heavy weight) will have a U-value of 3 w/m2K With 50mm polystyrene foam, the U-value can be brought down to 0.56 w/m2

REDUCING SOLAR GAIN THROUGH WINDOWS 194xCFxWWRxSC 194 x Correction Factor (Depend on Orientation) x Window Area x Shading Coefficient (Table 5,6 & 7)

Depending on WWR this is between 75% to 85% of Total OTTV. The large constant of 194 already hints that this is a major factor in the OTTV
SC can be a major contributor to reducing the Overall OTTV as it can change this component by between 30% to 80%

IMPROVING THE SHADING COFFECIENT OF WINDOWS Window SC = Glass SC x Shading Device SC SCwindow = 0.6 x 0.8 = 0.48 a reduction of more than 50%

R1 = Projection / Window Height Typical = 0.3m/1.2m = 0.25 SC = 0.8

R1 = Projection / Window Height Top = 0.3m/0.3m = 1.0 SC = 0.67

GLASS SHADING COFFICIENTS & U-VALUES

SHGC (Solar Heat Gain Coffecient)
COLOUR TINTED SOLAR CONTROL U-Value U-Value ( with Eclad) 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35

Clear Grey Bronze Blue - Green Artci Blue Evergreen

0.7 0.45 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.39

0.54 0.33 0.38 0.38 0.3 0.29

0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58

SC=SHGC/0.87
COLOUR TINTED SOLAR CONTROL U-Value U-Value ( with Eclad) 0.35 0.35

Clear Grey

0.8 0.52

0.62 0.38

0.58 0.58

Bronze
Blue - Green Artci Blue Evergreen

0.57
0.57 0.48 0.45

0.44
0.44 0.34 0.33

0.58
0.58 0.58 0.58

0.35
0.35 0.35 0.35

SAMPLE BUILDING MS1525 CALCULATION