INTRODUCTION The Study of Logic

Definition
Derived

from the Greek word logos which means - study, reason or discourse is the science and art of correct thinking - it is a SCIENCE because it is a systematized body of logical truths and principles governing correct thinking

LOGIC

an ART, logic is a techne and it teaches how to make a good argument - often called the arts of arts because it develops and perfects the intellect which all artists need in their work

- as

Logic and correct thinking

It

is correct when it conforms to a pattern or to rules Example: A ruler is 12-inch long Pres. GMA is a ruler Therefore, Pres. GMA is 12-inch long -THINKING is a mental process involves analysis, definition, classification, comparison and contrasts, etc. - It guides or directs man to form correct ideas

Branches of logic
FORMAL

LOGIC -concerned with the aspect of form which has something to do with the correctness or sequence or the following of rules Ex. All men are mortal but Pedro is a man therefore Pedro is mortal

Branches of logic
MATERIAL

LOGIC -concerned with the aspect of subject matter or content or truth of the argument Example: A ruler is 12-inch long Pres. GMA is a ruler Therefore, Pres. GMA is 12-inch long

KINDS - Deductive Logic: from more to less - Inductive Logic: implies a sense of probability

 The

Mental Operations 1. SIMPLE APPREHENSION 2. JUDGMENT

Concepts and terms Products

CONCEPT

three essential operations of the intellect External Signs

ORAL AND WRITTEN TERMS ORAL AND WRITTEN PROPOSITIONS

MENTAL PROPOSITION

3. REASONING

MENTAL AGREEMENT OR DISAGREEMENT

ORAL AND WRITTEN ARGUMENTS

 The

representation of an object by the intellect through which man understands or comprehends a thing It is an idea- starts with an outside reality and apprehended by the senses

concept

Kinds of concept
1.First Intention: we understand what the thing is according to what it is in reality Ex. A dog is an animal. Second Intention: we understand not only what the thing is according to what it is in reality but also how it is in the mind Ex. Monte Vista (Mountain View) is the name of my subdivision

Kinds of concept
2.Concrete Concepts: expresses a form and a subject Ex. The flower rose Abstract Concepts: has a form only , has intangible quality, that which cannot be perceived by the senses Ex. Beauty in a woman

Kinds of concept
3.Absolute Concepts: signifies the meaning of a concept, all definitions are absolute concepts Ex. A triangle is a three-sided figure. Connotative Concepts: signifies a characteristic existing in the concept, all modifiers are connotative concepts Ex. Drummer boy

Kinds of concept
4.Positive Concepts: signifies the existence or possession of something Ex. happy Negative Concepts: signifies the absence of something Ex. sad

Seatwork #2
Underline the simple subject of each proposition then classify according to the four kinds of concepts in the column below: 1. Justice is a prerequisite of love. 2. Men are creatures of God. 3. Freedom is the name of our park. 4. Honesty is still the best policy. 5. Joy is Zenys friend.

Concept
1.

I or II

C or A

A or C

P or N

2.

3.

4.

5.

Underline the simple subject of each proposition then classify according to the four kinds of concepts in the column below: 1. Love is a many-splendored thing. 2. Love is the theme of the homily. 3. The loving couple is a model to their children. 4. Hope is the opposite of despair. 5. Hope is the street where I live. 6. The urban poor are people in need of hope.

Assignment #2

The term
The

external representation of a concept and the ultimate structural element of a proposition. - external representation means it is always a sign of a concept or an idea - ultimate structural element means it could either be the subject or predicate of a proposition

The term
EXAMPLE: Hilda is a (nun).
subject predicat e

Ex.
Bats

are flying creature.

Logic

is a science that deals with the study of correct reasoning.

EXTENSION OF A TERM - the sum total of the particulars to which the comprehension of a concept can be applied - The denotation of a term - The terms that are members of the domain of the concept

Properties of a term

Properties of a term
COMPREHENSION

OF A TERM - the sum total of all notes which constitute the meaning of a concept - set of traits or characteristics that differentiates the term in a group - the connotation of a term

 Example

is the term BAT -for its extension it will include all animals, regardless of size, shape, colour, or breeding -further analysis (comprehension), know the nature of bats how? - You must try to state the trait or set of traits and characteristics that differentiates bats from the rest of the animal kingdom

Properties of a term

 Example

is the term BAT -the important common trait of bats is: they are the only mammals capable of sustained flight like a bird

Properties of a term

Unlike birds, bats are able to fly at low speed with extreme maneuverability.
-

 Comprehension

other inversely Meaning: the greater the comprehension of a term, the lesser its extension and vice versa - the arrangement of the characteristics from general to specific Ex. city, barangay, province, municipality, region, country , sitio

RELATIONSHIP

and Extension are related to each

Seatwork#3
Arrange 1. 2.

the ff. from greater comprehensiont o lesser extension Pedro, Filipino, Man, Asian, Brown Race Square, Plane, Figure, Rectangle, Polygon, Parallelogram, shape

Answer to sw#3
1.

Man Asian Brown Race Filipino Pedro

2. Plane Figure Shape Polygon Parallelogram

Rectangle Square

1.

SINGULAR it stands for a single definite individual or group - Proper nouns ex. Raul, La Union, DMMMSU - Nouns modified by adjective to the superlative degree ex. most charming - Demonstratives ex. this book, that door - Collective nouns ex. flock, class - The article the ex. The man in blue shorts - Personal pronouns I, you, he, she, we, they, my, your, our

Quantities of terms

2.

PARTICULAR - it stands for an indefinite subject - Indefinite pronouns and adjectives ex. Some, several, many, few - Use of numbers ex. Seven tickets - Use of article a and an - General propositions: which are true most of the time but not all the time ex. Filipinos are hospitable

Quantities of terms

3. UNIVERSAL it stands for every subject signified - Universal expressions ex. All, every, each, whatever, whoever, whichever, without exception, everything - Universal ideas Ex. Men are mortal - The use of articles the, a, an if the idea is universal Ex. The snake is a dangerous creature.

Quantities of terms

Seatwork #4
each simple subject and classify its quantity: S for singular, P for particular, and U for universal 1. I am a violinists daughter. 2. All the children are musicians. 3. Six of them are a string ensemble. 4. A brother is a trombone player. 5. Some bands are their competitors during the town fiesta. 6. A square is a geometric figure with four equal sides. 7. Two parallel lines will not meet. 8. You should practice what you preach. 9. That girl beside me is wearing a red dress. 10. The weather is warm.
Underline

Kinds of terms
1.

2.

UNIVOCAL if they mean exactly the same thing in the last two occurrences Ex. Man is rational. Get that man! EQUIVOCAL if they have different meanings in at least two occurrences Ex. Man the lifeboat! The son of man

3. ANALOGOUS if they have partly the same and partly different meanings in at least two occurrences KINDS: 1. Intrinsic analogy: used in technical terms and as definitions 2. Extrinsic analogy: used as a metaphor Ex. The heart of the forest

Kinds of terms

KINDS: 3. Analogy of Proportionality: when the terms use are similar Ex. The stepmother is cruel. The sea is cruel. 4.Analogy of Attribution: attribute the term to its denotation Ex. I am drinking Coke.

Kinds of terms

Seatwork #5

Classify the underlined terms- write U for Univocal, E for Equivocal, IA for Intrinsic Analogy, EA for Extrinsic analogy, AP for for Analogy of Proportionality, AA for Analogy of Attribution. 1. I am reading Rizal. 2. Gold is a precious metal. Lydia de Vega received a gold for 100m. Dash. 3. Politicians speaks of leveling the Smokey Mountain. Geneva Cruz is a member of the Smokey Mountain. 4. Gonzaga is a tenor. Cabahug is a tenor. 5. I am using Colgate.

Seatwork #5
Classify the underlined terms- write U for Univocal, E for Equivocal, IA for Intrinsic Analogy, EA for Extrinsic analogy, AP for Analogy of Proportionality, AA for Analogy of Attribution. 6. Father Sales and my father are friends. 7. The smiling sun is so brilliant. 8. The mouth of the river is clean. 9. We pass by Bridals Veil along Kennon Road 10. Hitler is a man. Marcos is a man.

SUPPOSITION OF TERMS
is functional the way it is meant in the proposition Examples: 1. A square is a rectangle with four equal sides. 2. Square has six letters 3. Square is the subject the sentence 4. A black-rimmed square clock is classy in my living room.
It

KINDS OF SUPPOSITION
MATERIAL SUPPOSITION: is that which uses a word for itself alone, for its spoken or written sign, not for its real meaning Examples: #2 and 3 2. FORMAL SUPPOSITION: is that which uses a word for its real meaning Example: #1
1.

Other kinds
A] LOGICAL SUPPOSITION: is that which uses a word for its second intention; that is the way the mind thinks it to be Example: #4 B] REAL SUPPOSITION: is that which uses a word in its first intention Example: #1

uNDER real supposition:

1] Absolute Supposition: is that which uses a word for essence, but without excluding existing reality Example: Proposition #1 Personal Supposition: is that which uses a word for the subject containing the essence signified by the word Example: Proposition #4

Essential Supposition: is that which uses a word for qualities necessary to the subject Example: #1
2.

Accidental Supposition: is that which uses a word for qualities not actually necessary to the subject Example: #4

Give the specific kind of supposition illustrated by the words carabao and pag-asa in each proposition below. 1. Tamarao belongs to the endangered species. 2. Tamarao is a word with three syllables. 3. Pag-asa is the name of the eaglet. 4. Pag-asa is the subject of the sentence. 5. Pag-asa means hope in English. 6. Pag-asa is now the adopted child of bird lovers.

Seatwork#6

IMAGINARY SUPPOSITION: exists as a product of imagination Ex. Fictional character - METAPHORICAL SUPPOSITION: term is used as a figure of speech Ex. The smiling sun - SYMBOLIC SUPPOSITION: signifies a group of men Ex. L.A. Lakers
-

Other types

The proposition
-

A special type of sentence An enunciation of truth or falsity Verbal expression of mental judgment

STRUCTURAL ELEMENT

S
-

[subject]- [copula]- [predicate] Subject stands for the thing signified, the one spoken of Predicate stands for what is affirmed or denied of the subject copula- links the subject and the predicate

* acceptable only is the present tense is or is not

example
All boys (are) future men.
Quantifier subject[S] copula[C] predicate[P]

Logical symbol QUANTITY QUALITY [Four standard propositions]

AFFIRMATIVE
UNIVERSAL , SINGULAR A Every S is P.

NEGATIVE
E No S is P.

PARTICULA R

I Some S is P.

O Some S is not P.

Universal Affirmative Proposition

All

students in logic class are intelligent. Every men on the planet is a human being. Everything in this world is temporary.
Note:

Change is permanent

Universal Negative Proposition

No

students in logic class are intelligent. No men on the planet is a human being. Nothing in this world is temporary.
Note:

No Change is permanent

Particular Affirmative Proposition

Some

students in logic class are intelligent. Few men on the planet is a human being. Something in this world is temporary.
Note:

Not every Change is permanent

Particular Negative Proposition

Some

students in logic class are not intelligent. Few men on the planet is not a human being. Something in this world is not temporary.
Note:

Not every Change is permanent

- Every monkey is an animal. E - No monkey is a human. I - Some monkeys are brown. O - Some monkeys are not brown.

examples

Logical diagram
A PROPOSITION PREDICAT E SUBJEC T

E PROPOSITION

SUBJECT

PREDICATE

I PROPOSITION

SUBJECT

PREDICATE

O PROPOSITION

SUBJECT

PREDICATE

WAYS OF REWRITING PROPOSITION TO ITS LOGICAL FORM 1. Change the verb to its present tense progressive. 2. Change the verb to a noun. 3. Change verb to a relative clause. 4. Change verb to a noun clause.

LOGICAL FORM

example
1.NO CROCODILES ARE FLYING. ALL CROCODILES CANNOT FLY. 2.NO CROCODILES ARE FLYERS. 3.NO CROCODILES ARE REPTILES THAT CAN FLY. 4.NO CROCODILES ARE FLYING REPTILES.

SQUARECONTRARY OF OPPOSITION
S U B A L T E R N S U B A L T E R N

SUBCONTRAR Y

CONTRADICTORIES
2 pairs: 1] A O: Every S is P, therefore, some S is not P. O A: Some S is not P, therefore, every S is P.
-

2]E I: No S is P, therefore, some S is P. I E: Some S is P, therefore, no S is P.

A -Examples: All men are rational, therefore O - some men are not rational.

I Some students are girls, therefore E No students are girls.

Rules: 1. If one is true, the other is false. 2. If one is false, the other is true.
A - All men are rational is true [ T ],

therefore O - some men are not rational. False or F

1 pair: contrary A E: Every S is P, therefore, no S is P. or E A: No S is P, therefore, every S is P.

-

Example: E- No students are girls, therefore, A - every students are girls.

Rules:
1.

2.

If one is true, the other is false. If one is false, the other is doubtful.

Example: E- No students are girls is false [ F ], therefore, A - every students are girls is doubtful [?]

1 pair subcontrary I O: Some S is P, therefore some S is not P. or O I: Some S is not P, therefore some S is P. EXAMPLE: I - Some students are girls, therefore O - some students are not girls.
-

Rules:
1.

2.

If one is true, the other is doubtful. If one is false, the other is true.

EXAMPLE: I - Some students are girls is true [ T ], therefore O - some students are not girls is doubtful [ ? ].

subalterns 2 pairs 1. A I: Every S is P, therefore some S is P. I A: Some S is P, therefore every S is P.

-

2. E O: No S is P, therefore some S is not P.

example
A- All triangles are planes with three sides, therefore I- Some triangles are planes with three sides.

Rules:
Ais true [ T ], therefore I- Some triangles are planes with three sides true [ T ].
1. If the universal is true, the particular is true; if the universal is false, the particular doubtful are planes with three sides All is triangles

If the particular is true, the universal is doubtful; but if the particular is false, the universal is false. I- Some triangles are planes with three sides is true [ T ] therefore A- All triangles are planes with three sides is
2.