DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

CONTENT:
1. 2. 3. 4. Heat as energy transfer Internal energy Specific heat, Latent heat Heat conduction, convection and radiation 5. Laws of Thermodynamics 6. Applications: Refrigerators, and Heat Engine
.

HEAT
What is heat ?

Heat is the energy that transfer from one object to another as a result of a difference temperatures and its measured in the standard unit of Joule. Heat always flows from warmer to cooler objects which in thermal contact.

Heat will not flow between two substances at the same temperature !!!

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Is the amount of heat required to change a unit mass of a substance by one degree in temperature

specific heat is an intensive variable and has units of energy per mass per degree (or energy per number of moles per degree).
specific heat at constant pressure is commonly denoted, Cp, while the specific heat at constant volume is commonly denoted, Cv specific heat of water at constant atmospheric pressure is:

Change of state occurs when the heat gained by (or lost from) a body is not accompanied by a rise (or drop) in its temperature.

phase diagram of water in phase change

If heat were added at a constant rate to a mass of ice to take it through its phase changes to liquid water and then to steam, the energies required to accomplish the phase changes (called the latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporization) would lead to plateaus in the temperature vs. time graph above.

1. Evaporation or Boiling - Change from liquid to gas - occurs when liquid molecules gain enough energy to leave the liquid - The vaporization point or boiling point is the fixed temperature at which a liquid changes into the gaseous state.

2. Fusion or melting - The process by which a solid changes into the liquid state at a certain fixed temperature by the absorption of heat energy. - The fusion point or melting point is the fixed temperature at which a solid starts changing into the liquid state.

3. Solidification or freezing - Process which a liquid changes into the solid state at certain fixed temperature by the liberation of heat energy. - The solidification point or freezing point is the fixed temperature at which a liquid starts changing into the solid state.
4. Liquefaction or condensing - Process by which a gas changes into the liquid state at a certain fixed temperature by the liberation of heat energy. - The liquefaction point or condensing point is the fixed temperature at which a gas changes into the liquid state.

LATENT HEAT
-If there is no change in temperature but rather a change in phase, this is known as Latent Heat. -There are two phase changes possible, namely the solid-liquid change known as fusion and the liquid-vapor change known as

evaporation.

- The latent heat is different in each case; for example : for water at atmospheric pressure: latent heat of fusion = 335 kJ/kg latent heat of evaporation = 2257 kJ/kg -The equation for latent heat does not include temperature terms is: Where ; m = mass of material (kg) L = latent heat capacity

Q = mL

-Specific latent heat of fusion is defined as the amount of heat required to change a unit mass of a solid at its melting point into a liquid, without changing its temperature.
- Specific latent heat of vaporization is defined as the amount of heat required to change a unit mass of a liquid at its boiling point into a gas (vapor), without changing its temperature.

Examples:
1. Determine the quantity of heat that must be absorbed by an object of mass 1.5kg in order to raise its temperature from 30C to 60C. [c=0.90 kJ/kg K] T1 = 30C + 273 = 303K T2 = 60C + 273 = 333K Q = mc (T2-T1) = (1.5kg) (0.90kJkg-1 K-1) (333-303) K = 40.5kJ

2. After absorbing 2.85kg of heat, an ideal gas expands and does mechanical work of 0.15kJ. Determine the change in internal energy of the gas. U = Q W = 2.85 0.15 = 27kJ

Concept of thermal expansion

Concept of thermal expansion

Liquid and solid amount of expansion depend on materials coefficient thermal of expansion.

For gases the change in volume or pressure is related to the container that gas is in.
In General liquid expand more than solid, gases expand more than liquid. [gases > liquid > solid] Thermal expansion is important for many structures such as railways, bridges, building, water pipes and road construction. Polymer expands more than metals and ceramic.

Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)

During heat transfer, the energy that is stored in the intermolecular bonds between atoms changes. When the stored energy increases, so does the length of the molecular bond. Solid expand in response to heating and contract on cooling CTE is response to temperature change

 CTE can be divided into 3; i) coefficient of linear expansion, ii) coefficient of superficial expansion and iii) coefficient of cubical expansion.

Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases.

Thermal Conduction Thermal conduction through solid Heat flows through solid by 2 mechanisms; i) Vibrations of atoms or molecules of the solid. ii) Movement of free electron in the solid. For solid material, amount of thermal expansion can be described by thermal ratio of strain.

L final L initial therm al L initial

And directly with temperature

thermal T
where T = Tfinal - Tinitial

Mechanism of heat flows

Temperature Gradient ( d ) dx Temperature gradient can be defined as how much the temperature drops when we move on the object from one point to another for very short distance away towards the cooler end.

d 1 2 dx x
1 and 2 = temperature exist at 2 point x = distance x

X 2

Y 1

Steady state the solid temperature at any point within or on the surface of a solid remains unchanged as time passes.

Thermal conductivity, K
If A=1m2, 1- 2 =1K, x =1m, then k = d/dt K - The rate at which heat flows perpendicularly through unit cross sectional area of a solid under steady condition, per unit temperature gradient along the direction of heat flow. - Unit Wm-1K-1

Thermal conduction through SOLID & COMPOSITE solids

SOLID COMPOSITE

Example 1:
One end of a properly insulated copper rod of length 20cm and cross-sectional area 2.0cm2 is maintained at a constant temperature 100C while the other end is at a temperature 0C. If the rod is in steady state, determine; i) the temperature gradient along the rod ii) the temperature at a point 4.0cm from the hot end of the rod. iii) the rate of heat flow through the rod. [Given copper K = 380 Wm-1K-1]

Answer: a) Temperature gradient

1 2
x

b) 100
0.04

0 100 0.2

500C / m

500C / m
= 80C
1 2
x )

c) dQ
dt

kA(

380(2x10 4 )A(

0 100 ) 0.2

= 38W

Example 2:
100C Copper 60C Steel 0C

100cm

From figure, when rods achieve steady condition, determine a) the length L of the steel rod b) the rate of heat flow through both rods. Given, thermal conductivity copper = 380Wm -1K-1 and Steel = 46 Wm-1K1 , A = 5 cm

Exercises
1. Figure below shows a bar made from two different substances X and Y of the same length and diameter which are placed end to end and are in thermal contact. They are properly insulated on the outside. The end of X and Y are fixed 0C and 100C respectively. The conductivity for X is twice that of Y. Find the steady state temperature for the surface between P and Q.
X 0C Y 100

C Given: dQX dQY dt dt 2. The thermal conductivity for a piece of insulator 10 mm thick is 0.4 W m-1 K-1. If the rate of heat conducted per unit area is 800 W m-2, calculate the temperature difference between the two faces of the insulator. [Given A = 1 m]

3. Two bars, of length l and 2l respectively with the same cross sectional areas, are different heat conductivities, k1 and k2. They are connected end to end as shown in the figure below. One end (of the shorter bar) is maintained at temperature T1 while the other end (of the longer bar) is maintained at temperature T3. If T1 > T3 and there is no heat loss from the sides of the bar, determine the temperature of T2 .

T1 T2

T3

K1

K2

2l

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

The study of thermodynamics is concerned with the ways energy is stored within a body and how energy transformations (involve heat and work). One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the conservation of energy principle which states that during an energy interaction, energy can change from one form to another but the total amount of energy remains constant. That is, energy cannot be created or destroyed.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

Thermodynamics is The science that examines the effects of energy transfer on macroscopic materials systems. Thermodynamics predicts Whether a process will occur given long enough time driving force for the process Thermodynamics does not predict How fast a process will occur mechanism of the process

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

A thermodynamic system, or simply system, is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study. The region outside the system is called the surroundings. The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the boundary. The boundary of a system may be fixed or movable. Surroundings are physical space outside the system boundary.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study. A closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass and no mass may cross the system boundary. The closed system boundary may move. Examples of closed systems are sealed tanks and piston cylinder devices (note the volume does not have to be fixed). However, energy in the form of heat and work may cross the boundaries of a closed system.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

An open system, or control volume, has mass as well as energy crossing the boundary, called a control surface. Examples of open systems are pumps, compressors, turbines, valves, and heat exchangers. An isolated system is a general system of fixed mass where no heat or work may cross the boundaries. An isolated system is a closed system with no energy crossing the boundaries and is normally a collection of a main system and its surroundings that are exchanging mass and energy among themselves and no other system.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

The change in internal energy of a closed system U, will be equal to the energy added to the system by heating the work done by the system on the surroundings. U=QW 1st Law of Thermodynamics

Q is the net heat added to the system W is the net work done by the system U is the internal energy of a closed system.

**First law of thermodynamics is conservation of energy.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

ISOTHERMAL PROCESS process that carried out at constant

temperature

PV = constant

PV diagram for an ideal gas undergoing isothermal processes

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

ADIABATIC PROCESS An adiabatic process is one in which no heat is

gained or lost by the system. The first law of thermodynamics with Q=0 shows that all the change in internal energy is in the form of work.

PV diagram for an ideal gas undergoing isothermal processes

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

ISOBARIC PROCESS A process is one which the pressure is kept

constant.

ISOVOLUMETRIC PROCESS A process is one in which the volume

does not change

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

Second Law of Thermodynamics is a statement about which processes occur in nature and which do not.

Heat can flow spontaneously from a hot object to a cold object; heat will not flow spontaneously form a cold object to a hot object.
Q = mc T = mc (T2 T1)

Q = quantity of heat transferred (J) m = mass of the material (kg) c = specific heat capacity (J/kg K) T1= initial temperature (K or C) T2= final temperature (K or C) T= temperature difference = T2 T1

First Law of Thermodynamics Basically states when a close system absorbs an amount of heat (Q) and at the same time does mechanical work of amount (W), then the internal energy of the system will change by an amount (U). The first law can be mathematically as: U = Q W @ Q = U + W stated

Second Law of Thermodynamics The heat flow does cause change in temperature is known as sensible heat. If the temperature change is not too large, it has been found that for any given material, the sensible heat flow is given by: Q = mc T = mc (T2 T1) Q = quantity of heat transferred (J) m = mass of the material (kg) c = specific heat capacity (J/kg K) T1= initial temperature (K or C) T2= final temperature (K or C) T= temperature difference = T2 T1

The direction of heat flow in a substance or across a single boundary of a system is always from higher to a lower temperature!!!

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

The idea is that the energy can be obtained from thermal energy only when heat is allowed to flow from a high temperature to a low temperature. In each cycle the change in internal energy of the system is U = 0 because it returns to the starting state. QH at a high temperature TH is partly transformed into work W and partly exhausted as heat QL at a lower temperature TL .
Schematic diagram of energy transfer for heat engine

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

Heated steam passes through the intake valve and expand against a piston (forcing it to move)

As the piston returns to its original position, it forces the gases out the exhaust valve.

Reciprocating type

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

Reciprocating piston is replaced by a rotating turbine that resembles a paddlewheel with many set of blades. The material that is heated and cooled, (steam) is called working substance. In a steam engine, the high temperature is obtained by burning coal, oil, or other fuel to heat the steam.

Turbine

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

In internal combustion engine, the high temperature is achieved by burning the gasoline-air mixture in the cylinder itself.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

The efficiency, e, of any heat engine can be defined as the ratio of the work it does, W, to the heat input at the high temperature, QH.
e W QH

Since energy is conserved, the heat input QH must equal the work done plus the heat that flows out at the low temperature QL.

QH W QL W QH QL e QH QL QH QL QH

e 1

** e could be 1.0 (@100%) only if QL were zero that is only if no heat were exhausted to the environment.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

Carnot engine consist of four processes done in a cycle, two of which are adiabatic and two are isothermal. Each of the processes was done slowly that the process could be considered a series of equilibrium states, and the whole process could be done in reverse with no change in the magnitude of work done or heat exchanged.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

Evaporator
Capillary tube

Liquid Refrigerant

Condenser

High Pressure Gas

Compressor

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

Electrical Energy => Kinetic Energy => Heat energy When refrigerants change from vapor to liquid, heat is discharged. On the contrary, changing from liquid to vapor, heat is absorbed

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

The principle of refrigerators, air conditioners and heat pumps is just the reverse of a heat engine. Refrigerator: no work is required to take heat from the low-temperature region to high-temperature region [no device is possible whose sole effect is to transfer heat from one system at a temperature TL into a second system at a higher temperature TH.] The coefficient of performance (COP) of a refrigerator is defined as the heat QL removed from the low-temperature area divided by the work done W to remove the heat.

QL COP W

[refrigerator and air conditioner]

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

More heat , QL, that can be removed from inside the refrigerator for a given amount of work, the better (more efficient) the refrigerator is. Energy is conserved;
QL W QH COP QL QL W QH QL

Ideal refrigerator;

COPideal

TL TH TL

Air conditioner works very much like a refrigerator, it takes heat QL from inside a room or building at a low temperature, and deposits heat QH outside the environment at a higher temperature.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

Heat naturally flows from high to low temperature, but for refrigerators and air conditioners do work to accomplish the opposite to make heat flow from cold to hot.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

Heat pump is usually reserved for a device that can heat a house in winter by using an electric motor that does work W to take heat QL from the outside at low temperature and delivers heat QH to the warmer inside of the house. The objective of heat pump is to heat pump is to heat rather than to cool. Thus the COP is defined directly than for an air conditioner because it is the heat QH delivered to the inside of the house.

QH COP W

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY UNIKL MIMET

A refrigerator is removing heat at a rate of 6 kJ. The required power input to the refrigerator is 2kJ. (a) COP =
QL = Wnet 6 kJ = 3 2 kJ

(b) QH = QL + Wnet,in = 6kJ + 2kJ= 8 kJ

5 QL = 6kJ

25 QH = 8kJ

COP of an electric heater = 1,

because the electricity is totally converted to heat

Wnet = 2kJ