ROCK PROPERTIES

Dr. R.K.Dutta
APCED
NIT Hamirpur
LAB TESTS
On discontinuities
AND
cores of intact rock
Empirical models can then provide an
estimate of the rock mass characteristics
Standards
ISRM minm. no. of tests that should be
carried out on a particular rock type?
IS Code: Methods of Testing Rocks for
Engineering Purposes

Void Index
Permeability
UCS
Point load Index
Tensile Strength Tests
Brazil test
Bending Test
Shear Box Tests
Oblique Shear Test
Punching Shear Tests
Schmidt hammer


Range of Lab Tests
Void Index Test
This test is intended to measure the
void index, defined as the mass of
water contained in a rock sample
after one hour period of immersion,
as a % of its initial dry mass. This
test should only be used for rocks
that do not disintegrate when
immersed in water.
1. A water tight sample container of
non corrodible material of sufficient
capacity to contain the sample
packed in dehydrated silica gel.
2. Sufficient dehydrated silica gel
3. A balance of adequate capacity
accurate to 0.5 g.
Apparatus Required
1. A representative sample is selected comprising of at least 10 rock
lumps. The size of each lump should be such that its mass
exceeds 50 g or such that its minimum dimension is at least 10
times the maximum grain size which ever is greater.
2. The sample in air dry condition is packed into the container, each
lump separated from the next and surrounded by crystal of
dehydrated silica gel. The container is left to stand for a period of
24 hrs.
3. The container is emptied, the sample removed, brushed to clean
loose rock and silica gel crystals and its mass A is determined to
0.5 g accuracy.
4. The sample is replaced in the container and water is added until
the sample is fully immersed. The container is agitated to remove
bubbles of air and is left to stand for a period of one hour.
5. The sample is removed and surface dried using a moist cloth.
Care must be taken to remove only surface water and to ensure
that no fragments are lost. The mass B of the surface dried
sample is determined.

Procedure
100 Iv x
A
A B
=
Permeability Test
1. Take a rock core of 60
mm dia and 150 mm
length.
2. Drill a hole of 12 mm
diameter at the centre of
the specimen up to a
length of 125 mm.
3. Apply the pressure from
out side periphery of the
cylindrical specimen.
4. A flow will take place
and water will be
collected at the central
hole which will be at an
atmospheric pressure.

Let L is the length of the
inside hole and R
2
and
R
1
be the outside and
inside radii of the
specimen. While
conducting the test,
care should be taken
that the applied
pressure should not
be too high or too low

(

=
=
=
1
2
ln
. . 2
. . . 2 .
q
R
R
P L
q
k
dr
dP
L r k q
kiA
t
t
Uniaxial Compresive Strength Test
The diameter of the specimen should be 50 mm or more
practical maximum 63 mm?
The l/d ratio should be 2.0 - 3.0
The ends of the specimen are trimmed flat
capping of weak material
The ends of the specimen have to be perpendicular
Lightly lubricated spherical seat on the upper cap
UCS set-up
Diameter, d
Length, l
Spherical
top cap
0.5 -1.0 MPa/sec: 5 to 15 mins/test
Spherical seat important to keep load aligned with sample axis
& for samples with discontinuities
UCS spherical platens
Notes:
compressive strength generally decreases as
d increases
especially for coarse grained & fissured rocks
strength of a core decreases as length, l,
increases
more flaws?
greater chance of unfavourable orientation of
flaws?
Samples must be stored & tested at moisture
appropriate to the purpose
Moisture can have a significant effect on strength
& deformability of rock
Samples retrieved from below WT may dry out
Samples retrieved from above the WT may be too wet
due to drilling fluid.
Typical UCS values (o
c
)
o
c
(MPa)
Intact rock
5 - 100

Shale
20 -
170
Sandstone
100 -
300
Granite, Basalt,
Dolerite
(

+ =
=
778 . 0 222 . 0
18 . 0
50
) 50 (
L
d
d
cd c
c c
o
o
o
o
Influence of Discontinuities
on Strength
Orientation & number of discontinuities affect
strength: CASE 1 a single discontinuity
Apparent angle of
friction of joint = |
w
u
o
c
/o
c max
1.0
0.0
minm.
|
w
(45 + |
w
/2)
u
0 90
Intersecting Joints?
o
c
/o
c max
1.0
0.0
minm.
u
0 90
Point Load Test
Since the determination of compressive
strength takes time in lab, and there are many
factor on which the value depends. Hence for
quick estimation of UCS of rock, point load
strength is popular in rock mechanics. In this
test a rock core is loaded between the two
cones of steel. Failure is caused by
development of tensile cracks parallel to the
loading axis.
Usually a core, diameter, D = 50 mm

2
) (
D
P
I
d s
=
Tests are done on drilled core of length atleast 1.4 times the diameter.
The point load index I
s(50)
is reported as the point load strength of a
50 mm core.

Point Load Test and UCS
I
s50
of valid test correlated against
UCS
NOTE: Valid tests if splitting rather than
crushing

o
c
~ 24 I
s50
Tensile Strength Test
In rock mechanics a knowledge of
tensile strength of rock is important
in designing roofs and domes of
under ground openings. A rock slab
or beam subjected to bending also
experience a tensile stress. Although
rock is weak in tension, an average
tensile strength of rock has been
found to be one tenth of its
compressive strength.
Although the principle of
measurement of tensile
strength is to apply an axial
tensile force to a rock
specimen the method is not
successful due to difficulties
in gripping and making the
rock specimens. For a grip at
the two ends, the shape of
the specimen has to be as
shown in figure. With rock it
is difficult to make a
specimen of rock of such a
shape.
Brazilian Test
Testing of discs of rock of L/d = 0.5
Apply compressive load so that failure takes place in a about 5 mins.
Splitting test
centre at the disc of thickness
2
=
=
L
DL
P
t
t
o
Bending Test
With a diamond saw, a beam is cut out of the rock sample. The specimen
is supported at two ends. At the centre of the support a concentrated
load is applied. The load is increased till failure takes place.
3
ln 6
bd
P
I
Mn
t
= = o
b
d
l
n = distance from the neutral axis to the fathermost fibre
Slake Durability Test
Potential weathering of exposed rock
Resistance to two standard cycles of
drying & wetting
Rotating drum (20 rpm); rotates in water
10 small dry lumps rotated for 10 mins
Dried out and repeated
Mass loss recorded
mass i ni ti al
l umps dry of mass fi nal
i ndex durabi l i ty sl ake =
Shear Strength Test
A knowledge of shear strength of a rock is
necessary to deal with the situation
where the rockmass is subjected to
shear. A few problems dealing with
shear stress are the stability of rock
slopes, stability of a structure against
sliding on its base.
Shear Box Test
Larger shear box devices may be used
to evaluate rock joint strength
Dead weight loading stays constant
constant normal stiffness devices better
simulate in-situ ground conditions
Motor
drive
Load cell to
measure
Shear Force
Normal load
Rollers
Rock
Porous plates
Top platen
Measure relative horizontal displacement, dx
vertical displacement of top platen, dy
| o t tan
n u
c + =
Direct Shear Test on Rock Cubes
This test is carried on a rock cube of a
standard dimension. The length of
cubes varies from 50 mm to 150 mm.
The cubical specimen is placed in the
holder diagonally at an angle of 45
0

with the horizontal. The cube with the
holder is placed between two loading
plates of a compression machine. The
loading device transfer the vertical
load to the rock specimen forcing the
rock cube to shear along the
predetermined plane.
45 sin
A
P
n
= o
45 cos
A
P
= t
Punching Shear Test
In this test, the shear strength of a specimen is
evaluated by punching shear. The sample
is taken in the disc form of thickness t. The
test equipment consists of a piston shaped
cylindrical jig having projected end. This
cylindrical jig fits in a hollow cylindrical
block. The disc shaped sample is placed at
the bottom of the cylindrical block and the
piston is put over the sample. Now whole
arrangement is put between the plates of a
loading machine and the load is applied.
The load P to punch the sample is noted.
disc the of Thickness t
puncher the of Diameter d
load Applied P
where
=
=
=
= =
dt
P
A
P
s
t
o
TRIAXIAL TESTING
Spherical top cap
Strain gauged specimen
- axial and radial strain
Stiff rubber jacket
Solid steel cell
Oil instead of water to
provide o
3
-

(values in MPa)
- (o
1
= o
3
)

Need to apply o
1
through ram
as oil loaded

PWP & Mudstone - Johnston
(
o
1

-

o
3
)
m
a
x

(
M
P
a
)

-2
o'
3 max
= 3.56 MPa
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
10
-5
10
-3
10
-2
10
-4
Strain Rate (strain/minute)
E
x
c
e
s
s

p
w
p

(
M
P
a
)

(1%/minute)
Shear Testing of Discontinuities
Hoek shear cell
Shear Testing of Discontinuities
0
0
Normal Stress
S
h
e
a
r

S
t
r
e
s
s

Shear Test Results
c
w
SLOPES
tan|
w peak

tan
residual
Portable shear device failings
Direction of the normal load shifts with shear
displacement corrections
Difficult to maintain pressures with hydraulic jacks
also pumping creates jerking disturbance
Dilating shear planes create enormous normal
forces through the cable ties, which can be
unrealistic
Schmidt Hammer
same as used for
concrete
rebound on
standard impact
converted to f
c
= o
c

take many
samplings to get a
statistical mean


Key Points?
Intact rock strength can be evaluated simply
(Schmidt hammer, I
s50
, o
c
, o
t
)
High pressure triaxial testing, usually without
consideration of pwp
Joint strength from portable shear or shear
box
Weathering of exposed faces from slake
durability
Failure Criteria for Rockmass
Rock fails when stress exceed strength. Failure in rock
occurs by development of fracture or slip surfaces.
The type of fractures and their orientation depends on
the distribution of stresses across a specimen, the
type of material and whether stresses are applied in
tension or compression. Fractures developing in the
plane containing the maximum principal stress are
called extension fractures because they do not contain
any shear component. Fractures not parallel to any of
the principal planes are shear fractures. Failures or
collapse of a specimen can occur along single
fractures or a network of fractures. Rock materials
can fail quietly or violently depending on energy
content and stiffness of the loading system.
Materials have been classified as brittle if their ability to
resist a load decreases with increasing deformation.
Ductile behaviour is displayed by a material where
deformation can not be sustained without the loss of
strength.
The failure process is complex and mathematically
difficult to quantify. Four failure criteria are available.
1. Coulomb Criteria
2. Mohrs Criteria
3. Hoek-Brown Criteria
4. Griffths Criteria
The first three are empirical and are of considerable value
in the design of excavations where as the Griffth
theory has value for understanding fracture initiation
in rock.
Coulomb Criteria
Coulomb suggested for shear failure of rocks
that the shear stress tending to cause failure
is resisted by the cohesion of the material
and by a constant multiplied by the normal
stress. This constant is the coefficient of
friction.

| o t tan + = c
Mohrs Hypothesis
Mohr proposed that when shear failure takes
place across a plane that the stresses at
failure are related by a function

This could be a straight line or a curved
relationship
) (o t f =
) 2 cos(
2 2
2 1 2 1
u
o o o o
o

+
+
=
) 2 sin(
2
2 1
u
o o
t

=
By adding a Mohrs circle which touches a failure
criteria, the conditions at failure are defined.
For a straight line envelope represented by the
strength criteria


It is easy to combine the effect of confining
pressure and the principal stresses at failure.
| o t tan + = c
Hoek-Brown Criteria
The equation for failure criteria has been developed
by considering the theoretical and experimental
aspect of rock behaviour.
3 1
c
2
3 3 1
stresses the to subjected being before broken
been has it which extent to upon the and rock the of
properties upon the depend hich constant w are s m,
rock intact of strength e compressiv Uniaxial
Where
o o
o
o o o o o
and
s m
c c
=
+ + =
1 s rock broken previously For
1 s and rocks intact For
) 0 (
specimen a of strength e compressiv uniaxial The

3
2
<
=
= =
= c cs
c
cs put s
o o
o o o
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = =
= + +
=
s m m
s m
c
t
c
c
4
2
0
0 putting by given is
specimen a of strength tensile uniaxial The
2
3
2
3 3
1
o
o o
o o o o
o
Balmer expressed the equation for a system of
Mohr circles.

3
1
1
equation above in the Substitute
1
respect to with partially ate Differenti
4
1
)
2
( (
) (
3
1
3 1
3
1
3 1
3
3
2
3 1
2 2
3 1
2 2 2
o
o
o
o
o o
t
o
o
o
o o
o o
o
o o t
o o
o
t o
c
c
+
c
c

=
+
c
c

+ =
= +
+

= +
|
.
|

\
|
b a
m
3 1
3
3
3
1
3 1 3
1
2
3 3 1
3
sin2 and )
2
(
4
1 ) (
8
equations two above in the Substitute
) ( 2
1
get We
respect to ith equation w following the ate differenti Partially
2
t
t
|
o o
t
t
o
o o t
o
t
t
o o
o
o
o o
o
o
o
o o o o o
o
=

=
+ =
+
+ =
c
c
+ =
c
c
+ + =

m
m
c
c
m
m
c
c c
m
m
m
s m
By substituting successive pairs of o
1
,
o
3
, a complete Mohr envelope can be
generated. While this process is
convenient for some applications, it is
inconvenient for calculations such as
those involved in slope stability
assessment where the shear strength
is required for a specified normal
stress level.
The more useful expression for Mohr envelope is
) ) 4 ( (
2
1
log
) ( log
) log( y
......(1) .......... .......... b......... ax y
follows as determined
are which constants empirical are B and A Where
) A.(
2
c
c
B
c
s m m
A b
B a
x
c
t
c
t
c
t
c
+ =
=
=
=
=
+ =
=
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
t
o
o
o
o
o
t
i i
B
c
t
i
i
i
i i
c
n
x
B
n
x
x
n
y x
| o t
o
o
o
o
|
o
|
Tan .
) A.B.( Tan
calculated are of e given valu a for c cohesion
ous instantane the and angle friction ous instantane The
.
n
y
A Log
) (
y x
-
B
1. equation of analysis regression linear
by formed are B and A constants the of values The
1
c
i
i
i
i
2
2
i i
=

Determination of Material Constants

For Intact Rocks

n
x
n
x
x
n
y x
n
y
m y
s m
i
i
i
i i
i
c
c
c
c c

(
(
(
(

=
=
=
=
+ =
+ + =

2
2
i i

3
3 1
2
c
2
3 3 1
) (
y x
-
m constant material the and strength
e compressiv uniaxial the and 1, s rock intact for
x
and
) ( y
where
s x
as written be may
2
o
o
o
o o
o o
o o o o o
data test triaxial the o equation t empirical the of fit
better the the 1.0, to is r of value closer the The
) ( ) (
y x
-
r ion determinat of t coefficien The
pairs. data such of number total the is n and
pairs data successive are yi and xi where
) (
y x
-
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
i i
2
2
2
2
i i
(
(
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
(
(
(
(

n
x
x
n
y
y
n
y x
r
n
x
x
n
y x
m
i
i
i
i
i i
i
i
i i
c o
Broken or Heavily Jointed Rock
For broken or heavily jointed rock, the strength of the
intact rock pieces. o
c
is determined from an analysis
presented or it is estimated from a test such as the
point load index. The value of m for the broken or
heavily jointed rock is found from the same
equation and the value of the constant s is given by
(

|
.
|

\
|
=

n
x
m
n
y
s
i
c
i
c
o
o
2
1
negavtive. is s ion when determinat of t coefficien the
calculate to used be not can r for equation The : Note
follows.
as m calculate and 0 s put case, a such In value.
negative a give times some ill equation w above
the zero, to close very is s of value When the
equation. same the from
found is r ion determinat of t coefficien The
2
2

=
=
i
i
x c
y
m
o
Griffith Criteria for Crack Propagation
Flaws Make the World Beautiful!

Were it not for the flaws, rocks and mountains would
have been perfectly boring
Griffith Cracks
Rocks have mechanical inhomogeneities/discontinuities
e.g.:
Flaws, fossils, inclusions, cavities, grain
boundaries, and microcracks

These inhomogeneities have different elastic
properties compared to the surrounding rock

Their presence perturbs the otherwise homogeneous,
mechanically- or thermally-induced remote stress field
This leads to an inhomogeneous stress field
that initiates joints when the concentrated
local tensile stress exceeds the tensile
strength of the rock
Micro-Flaws
Micro-flaws are the main factor in
structural failure in man-made
structures (e.g., ship, bridge, dam), by
producing stress concentration

Facts:
1. Failures in high strength material commonly
occur under low stress
2. Brittle solid materials are much weaker (i.e., have
lower fracture strength) under tension than under
compression
Micro-Flaws - Facts
3. The fracture strength, which is an
inherent property for an ideal,
continuous brittle solid, and represents
the critical stress needed to fracture, is
not highly reproducible

Testing methods, dimensions of test
specimens, environmental conditions,
and intrinsic structural characteristics are
but a few factors influencing the
variation of the fracture strength of
brittle solid material
Strength
Resistance of a rock to fracture
Is a critical value of stress at which
fracture occurs and rock fails

The theoretical tensile strength, which is the stress
needed to break atomic bonds of an ideal brittle
material, is about one tenth of its Young's modulus
(E/10). Recall that:
o = E e

The Young's modulus, E, for most rocks is commonly
of the order of 10
5
or 10
6
bars, implying great
strengths for these rocks (i.e., 10
4
or 10
5
bar or 10-
100 kbar!)
Strength
However, for real brittle material, the measured tensile strength is 1 to
2 orders of magnitude less than the theoretical tensile strength (i.e.,
E/1000-E/100)
i.e., rock strength is in the order of: 10
2
-10
3
bars
This indicates that the fracture strength in such solids is
not an intrinsic material property
The discrepancy between the molecular cohesive forces and
the observed tensile strength of real material solids has
been attributed by Griffith (1920) to the presence of
planar defects or cracks that are since referred to as
the Griffith cracks
Micro-Flaws
Structural Definition of Rock:
Polycrystalline aggregate that commonly
has a random population of mostly
inhomogeneous and anisotropic pre-
existing or mechanically-induced micro-
flaws
These flaws, that include micro-cracks, grain
boundaries, and pores, control the
mechanical behavior of imperfect rocks
Micro-Flaws
Problems dealing with crack initiation are
concerned with how and where cracks start,
whereas those dealing with propagation study the
path that the cracks take, and the extent to which
they grow

Fracture mechanics established a relationship
between fracture strength and micro-crack
geometry and fracture toughness

Inglis (1913)
Recognized the destructive influence of
cracks in brittle material

Determined stresses around an elliptical stress-
free hole and an extreme case of a fine straight
crack
He examined a brittle, homogeneous,
isotropic, plate under tension using a
mathematical approach
Inglis (1913)
Showed that a pull applied to the
ends of an elastic plate would
produce tensile stresses at the tip of
a crack, that may exceed the elastic
limit of the material and lead to the
propagation of the crack

Showed that the increase in the
length of the crack exaggerates the
stress even more, such that the
crack would continue to spread
Experiment
Assume an elliptical crack with semi-major, c, and semi-minor
axis, b, with an aspect ratio of c/b

Load the crack with a far remote tensile stress within the plate
(o
r
), normal to c

The local tensile stress perpendicular to the c axis is magnified
several times to o
C
(stress concentration )

Inglis showed that stress, o
C
, at the tip of the crack, varies with
the length and radius of curvature
( = b
2
/c) at the apices of the crack, and is proportional to the
square root of length (c), and inversely proportional to the of the
crack
Experiment
The highest tensile stress at the end of crack is
o
C
= o
r
(1+ 2 c/b)

The stress concentration is maximum at the crack tip
(where is minimum), and rapidly decreases within a
short distance from the crack tip

o
C
is approximated by:
o
C
= 2o
r
(c/)
1/2
Note: o
C
depends on shape (i.e., aspect ratio) and not on the size
of the elliptical cavity

When b= 0 (i.e., = b
2
/c = 0), the stress concentration at the
crack tip is infinity
Stress Concentration Factor
The minimum value of the radius of curvature at the end of
major axis of the elliptical cavity, , is at point C and is given by:
= b
2
/c

In Fig. 1.1, note that is zero at tip of sharp crack,
where stress concentration is maximum, and is given
by:
o
C
=o
r
(1+2c/b)=o
r
[(1+2(c/)
1/2
]

The ratio of stress concentration, o
C
at point c, to the applied
stress, o
A
, is called the elastic stress concentration factor, which
for a thin and long ellipse (b < c) is given by:
o
C
/o
r
~ 2c/b = 2(c/)
1/2

Griffith (1920)
A rock material contains a large number of randomly
oriented zones of potential failure in the form of grain
boundaries. Let us assume that one such grain
boundary contains a number of open flaws. These
flaws are approximately elliptical in shape. High tensile
stresses occur on the boundary of a suitably oriented
elliptical opening even under compressive stress
conditions and fracture initiates from the boundary of
an open flaw when the tensile stress on this boundary
exceeds the local tensile strength of the material.
To calculate the stresses around
the boundary of an open
elliptical flaw, certain
assumptions are made.
1. The ellipse can be treated as
a single opening in a semi-
infinite elastic medium i.e.
adjacent flaws do not interact
and local variations in
material properties are
ignored.
2. The ellipse and stress system
which acts upon the material
surrounding can be treated
two dimensionally i.e. the
influence of the three
dimensional shape of a flaw
and of the stress o
z
in the
crack plane can be ignored.
The stress system acting upon the grain boundary under
consideration is shown in the previous figure. The
convention adopted in this analysis is such that
compression is regarded as positive and o1>o2>o3
where o1, o2, o3 are the three principal stresses acting
on the rock body. The elliptical flaw is inclined at an
angle | to the major principal stress direction. The
normal stress o
y
and the shear stress t
xy
, which act on
the material surrounding the elliptical flaw, are related
to the maximum and minimum principal stresses o1 and
o3 by the following equations.
| o o t
| o o o o o
2 sin ) ( 2
2 cos ) ( ) ( 2
3 1
3 1 3 1
=
+ =
xy
y
The stress o
x
which acts parallel to the axis of the elliptical
flaw and the intermediate principal stress o
2
which acts
in the Z direction will be shown to have a negligible
influence upon the stresses near the tip of the flaw and
therefore their effect is ignored.
The equation for the tangential stress on the boundary of
ellipse (Inglish, 1913) is given by
( ) ( ) ( )
angle Eccentric
b/a m
where
sin cos
cos sin ) 1 ( 2 cos sin ) 2 1 ( cos ) 2 (
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
=
=
+
+ + + +
=
o
o o
o o t o o o o o
o
u
m
m m m m m
xy x y
In a material such as rock, it can be
assumed that the elliptical flaws will
have a very small axis ratio m i.e.
they will be very flat in shape. This
means that the maximum tensile
stress will occur near the tip of the
elliptical flaw i.e. when o is very small
or o ->0, sino -> and coso = 1.
( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
) (
0
1
2
1
2 ) ( 2 ) 2 )( (
maximum be ill boundary w on the stress l tangentia the , 0
d
When
(1) - - - - - - - - - - - - -
) ( 2 2 2
sin cos
cos sin ) 1 ( 2 cos sin ) 2 1 ( cos ) 2 (
2 2
xy y y
xy
y
xy
xy y xy
xy y xy y
xy x y
m
m m
m m
d
m
m
m
m
m
m m m m m
t o o o
t o
o
o
o
t
o
o o t o t o
o
o
o
o t o
o
o t o
o
o o
o o t o o o o o
o
u
u
u
u
u
+ =
= + =
=
= +
=
+

=
+

=
+
+ + + +
=
flaw. elliptical open an of
boundary at the initiate will fracture at which
stresses normal and shear e between th relation
the defines and parabola of equation the is This
) ( 4
equation previous in the value this Putting
) initiation crack at strength Tensile ( 2
0
est tension t uniaxial of case a Consider
2
y
t t
xy
t
t y
xy
m
o o o t
o
o
o o
t
u
=
=
=
=
Fracture Propagation
If it is assumed that the
inclination | of the elliptical
flaw is such that the
boundary stress o
u
is a
maximum for any
combination of the principal
stresses o
1
and o
3
then
equation

Becomes the equation of an
envelope to a number of
Mohr circles.
From the geometry of this
circle and from the slope of
the normal to the envelope


) ( 4
2
y
t t
xy o o o t =
z
xy
o
t
|
2
2 tan =
| o
o
t
o ou
2 tan .
or
.
2 .
m
m
m
xy
t
=

= =
Which defines the relation between the position of the maximum tensile stress on
the boundary of the elliptical flaw (o) and the inclination of this flaw (|) to the
direction of the minimum principal stress o3.
Since fracture is assumed to occur when the tangential stress on the boundary of
the flaw exceeds the local tensile strength of the material, it can be assumed that
the crack will propagate in a direction which is normal to the boundary of the
ellipse. The normal to the ellipse is given by
) 2 - ( or 2
2 tan tan
- - tan small, is since But
m and
tan
tan
bsin y and acos but x tan
| t |
|
o

o o
o

o o
=
= =
>
= =
= =

=
m
a
b
m
dy
dx
When t
xy
>0, |>0, therefore >0, the crack which initiates on the boundary of the flaw will tend
to propagate out of the plane of the flaw.
Fracture Propagation When t
xy
= 0
When t
xy
=0, |=0 and =0 i.e. under uniaxial
tensile stress to which the crack is
perpendicular, a crack is initiated at the tip
(o=0) of the elliptical flaw and it will
propagate in the plane of the initial flaw.
1. equation in 0 0, putting by

3 2 2
xy = =
= =
o t
o o
ou
m m
y
Fracture Propagation When t
xy
> 0
When t
xy
>0, the crack which initiates on the boundary of the
elliptical flaw propagates out of the plane of this flaw. This crack
path tends to align itself along the direction of the major principal
stress o
1
giving rise to a situation in which the equivalent elliptical
flaw is inclined at |=0 and the stress at the tip of the propagating
crack can be computed from

When o
3
>0 i.e. when o
3
is compressive, the stress at the tip of the
propagating crack becomes compressive when the crack is aligned
in the direction of the major principal stress s1. Under these
conditions, propagation of the crack will cease and the new flaw so
created will be stable under the existing conditions of applied stress.



3 2 2
m m
y o o
ou = =
The length of the crack which
propagates from an open
elliptical flaw for a given
combination of applied
stresses has been
determined experimentally
by Hoek and Bieniawiski.

The important conclusions to be
drawn from these results is
that a single open elliptical
flaw can not cause rupture
of a rock specimen under
conditions in which the
applied stresses o
1
and o
3

are both compressive.
Stress Strain Curve for a Typical Rock
A typical stress-strain curve for
westerly granite tested under
uniaxial compressive stress
conditions is given in the
margin figure. This stress
strain curve is divided into
eight regions Wawersik and
Brace give the following
description of the initiation
and propagation of fractures
in these regions.
1. Regions 1 to 3 marked by the
closure of the preexisting
cracks and a combination of
random crack formation,
crack growth and sliding on
existing crack interfaces.
2. In region 4, which includes the stress maximum, a
large number of small fractures are formed parallel to
the direction of loading. These cracks develop at
about mid height of all samples and lead to the onset
of spalling at the beginning of region 5. Because
spalling causes an area reduction, the onset of region
5 is associated with an increase in the regions 5 and 6
due to buckling instability of thinner surface layers of
rock.
3. In region 6 small steeply inclined shear fractures are
formed; these grow into an open fault in region 7. In
region 8, the deformation results in a loose mass of
the broken material held together by friction.
Influence of Pore Fluid on Strength
In addition to the effects of internal fluid
pressure in the pores of the rock, there is
strong evidence to suggest that the
presence of pore fluid without pressure can
have a significant influence upon the
strength of rock. From the test results, it is
clear that the pressure of water in the
pores of a rock will cause a reduction in its
uniaxial compressive strength but not in
the value of the material constant m.
Influence of Loading Rate
Vitukuri, Lama and Saluja have
compiled information on the influence
of loading rate upon the strength of
westerly granite under triaxial test
conditions and have shown that the
strength can be halved by decreasing
the loading rate by four orders of
magnitude. In general, the faster the
rate of load application, the stronger
will be the rock specimen tested.
Influence of Specimen Size
From experiments, it has been found that there is a strength
reduction with increasing specimen size for most rocks.
An approximate relationship between uniaxial
compressive strength and specimen diameter (10 to 200
mm) is given by




The above equation is valid for intact rock only. In case of
jointed rock masses, the variation in strength with size is
related to discontinuity spacing.
specimen the of Diameter d
diameter 50mm of specimen a of
strength e compressiv Uniaxial
where
50
50
50
18 . 0
=
=
=
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c c
d
o
o o
Temperature Effect on Strength of Rock
Study of the effect of temperature on the
strength of rock is very important for
engineers who are involved in the design
and construction of tunnels and under
ground opening, power houses. Increase in
temperature of the rock or a frequent
change in the rock temperature makes it
weaker due to formation of cracks in the
rockmass which ultimately leads to
reduction in the strength of rock.
Effect of Saturation on Strength of Rock
When weak rocks comes in
contact with water, the
water reduces the strength
of rock by chemical or
physical alteration of its
inherent properties. Test
results obtained by
Colback and Wiid on
quartzitic shale show that
the strength of saturated
specimens is almost
exactly half the strength of
specimens which had been
dried over calcium chloride
for several weeks.
Effect of Confining Pressure
Most rocks are
significantly
strengthened by
confinement. This is
especially striking
in a highly fissured
rocks. It has been
found that for a
fissured rock, there
is an increase in
strength by 10
times.
Effects of Anisotropy
Due to sequence in formation, a rock mass may not be isotropic. It may
be anisotropic due to existence of bedding planes. Nisotropic
material has some weakness in a particular direction or axis. Due to
anisotropy, a rockmass has different properties along the plane of
weakness. Hence it is necessary to know the plane of weakness.
This can be done by taking samples from a rockmass in all the three
perpendicular directions. A core of 50mm dia and 100 mm length is
taken and discs of 25 mm thickness are cut out of this core. Thus
there will be three sets of discs for three different axes. Now discs of
each set are kept separately and tested under a compression testing
machine under two point loads. An average value of three sets are
calculated. If the rockmass is having anisotropy, one set of the discs
will be having less strength and the axes of weakness thus can be
known.
Field Tests
Cable jacking test is a simple method of
loading the surface in a trench in the
ground where reaction is not
available or construction of gallery or
plate load test involves more cost and
testing becomes costly. Since
reaction surface is not required, this
test is also useful where good
reaction surface is not available.
Cable Jacking Test
In this test a bore hole is made in the
strata to be tested. For anchorage
a strong cable is inserted into the
bore hole and hole is grouted. The
minimum depth of anchorage is 8
to 10 times the dimension of the
bearing pad. To neglect the effect
of borehole, the area of bearing
pad is kept large. Finally the free
end of the cable is anchored at the
reaction head. The load is applied
through hydraulic jacks and the
deflection is noted. If the loading
area is large, then more number of
jacks can be used. The loading pad
arrangement may be two or four in
plan depending upon the situation.
Loads upto 1000 tonnes can be
applied in this way. Using a single
cable and allowing a large volume
of rock to be influenced.

If further testing is required at the same
location, then rock from the testing level to
the depth equivalent to loading pad width
should be removed and then the test is
repeated. When the tests at different
elevations are required, depth of bore hole
is kept such that anchorage length of at
least 8 to 10 times the dimension of
bearing pad is available at the lowest
elevation.
Pressure Tunnel Test
The pressure tunnel test is also
known as pressure chamber test.
A part of a circular tunnel is
sealed by concrete wall known as
bulkheads. The sealed portion is
radially loaded by fluid pressure.
The diametrical deformation of
the tunnel is measured which
helps in determination of the
modulus of elasticity of the rock
materials.
anisotropy
rock of account into take to mass rock in the with
direction one than more in determined are values E
1
. .
1
. .
by given is boundary tunnel at the n deformatio diametral The
2
2
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
+
=
+
= A
=
=
d
p d E
E
p d d
r
a
p
r
a
p
t
r

o
o
The calculation is based upon treating the tunnel as a thick walled cylinder and
assuming the external radius to be infinite. Radial and tensile stresses at a
point distant r from the center of the tunnel
The test is conducted by filling the tunnel with
water and applying pressure with a pump. The
applied pressure may be twice the pressure
expected due to actual construction otherwise
it may be estimated depending upon type of
rockmass. Deformations are measured by
water proof vibrating wire deflectometers
which have a sensitivity of 3 microns.
Reading of stress applied and corresponding
deflection are noted and a curve is drawn for
the evaluation of modulus of elasticity.
Advantages
Rock deformation can be known in any radial
direction.
Hydrostatic pressure on rock in the tunnel can
be sustained for a long period of time to
observe long time effects.
The effect of concrete lining on deformation
modulus can be determined by testing lined
and unlined section in same chamber.
For pressure tunnels, this test is most suitable.
Disadvantage
It is very expensive and hence, test
site is to be limited in number.
It brings about tensile hoop stresses
in the rock and if exceeded by the
compressive strength of the rock then
radial cracks in rock may appear.
A modification in pressure chamber
test is the radial jacking test which is
easier to conduct.
Shear Test
Determination of shear
strength involves
measurement of two
related parameters,
cohesion and angle of
friction. Cohesion is related
to grain to grain attraction
where as angle of friction
describes frictional
resistance between grain
to grain. The test is
conducted in the following
manner.
1. Prepare a specimen size 700 x
700x350.
2. The base of the test block should
coincide with the plane to be
sheared.

3. Around the base of the test block, a layer of about 20 mm thick of weak
material should be applied and the remaining block is encased with
reinforced concrete to prevent collapse of the block during testing.
4. The pore water pressure inside the rock should be dissipated first by the
application of normal loading. The load is applied gradually and the
resulting deformation is noted. When the rate of change of normal
displacement is less than 0.05 mm in 10 min, it is assumed that the
consolidation is complete and pore water pressure is dissipated.
5. When consolidation is complete, the shear force is applied. The rate of
shear displacement should be less than 0.1 mm/min in a 10 min period.
When the peak strength is reached, rate of shear displacement is
increased to 0.5 mm/min.
6. Normal load is applied in stages. When the block is displaced slightly the
normal load is increased again and shear force applied and displacement
noted.

|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
=
A
PSin N
Cos
A
P
h
o
o
o t
Plate Load Test
The object of this test is to determine the extent to
which the rockmass will deform under an
externally imposed load. The method consists of
applying a normal load to an exposed flat
surface by means of a hydraulic jack and
measuring displacement of the rock surface.
ratio s Poisson'
plate loading the of Area A
subgrade the of n deformatio of Modulus E
load Normal p
t coefficien nt Displaceme m
where
.
) 1 .( .
=
=
=
=
=

=
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

o
A E
p m
The value of m depends upon the shape of the
loading plate.
L/B m
Circle 0.96
Square 1:1 0.95
Rectangular 1:2 0.92
1:5 0.82
1:10 0.71
1. Base width of test gallery is at least four times
the lower dimension of the test plate.
2. The average displacement of the loaded area can
be determined taking average of the three dial
gauge readings.
3. The capacity of loading jack should be selected
such that an average loading pressure on the
rock surface should be at least the twice the
expected pressure developed by the proposed
structures.
4. 3 to 4 tests should be performed at each site
with varying sizes of loading plates and the
loading area should be as big as possible to take
into account the discontinuities inside the
rockmass upto the influence zone.
Procedure
5. The maximum load applied should be reached in
4 to 5 stages; in the first stage 20 %, Second
stage 40 %, Third stage 60 % and so on.
6. The maximum load at the time of loading and
zero load at the time of unloading in each stage
should be maintained until the deformation rate
at the centre is less than 0.025 mm/hr.
7. Creep of rock at the maximum pressure should
be measured by keeping the pressure constant for
2-3 days.
8. When the rock is wet, the rate of loading should
be such that the excess pore water pressure
should be dissipated.
The loading and unloading diagram of a typical plate
load test is shown in the adjoining figure.
The modulus values calculated taking P
1
, P
2
and
displacement D
1
and D
2
is known as deformation
modulus (E
d
).

Modulus of elasticity (E
e
) is obtained when deformation
values D
1
E
1
or D
2
E
2
are taken into account for the
modulus value where as initial tangent modulus (E
0
)
is obtained when displacement corresponding to small
load in early part of loading is taken into account.

While reporting plate load test values of E
0
, E
e
and E
d
for
each cycle are to be reported. This helps in evaluating
rock property even if it is non-linear.